should avoid the temptations of false promises or deception.
Understanding Employee's Goals
But how can a manager learn to understand the individual needs and suitable rewards for. an employee? Even a psychologist can spend months with clients without fully understanding them. One occasionally hears another say that she has been married years and still cannot figure out her husband. The interesting and fascinating aspect of people is their unpredictability.
An excellent way for managers to understand their employees better is to spend time visiting with them. As people spend more time with each other, they feel more comfortable with one another and are consequently more in~lined to relate private feelings and needs. Such cannot be accomplished in an annual pelformance review where a manager says little that is more specific than, "What are you looking for in your job?" With time and effort, managers can develop a sense of openness and trust in communication. Managers developing an open communication climate need to listen to employees without being quick to criticize.
One need not try to play the role of a psychologist As employees become more open, they will relate the importance of group or individual recognition, the type of achievements tlfey feel best about, and the type of. work they most enjoy. Employees will also feel freer to state their complaints to a listening manager-an invaluable way in which to understand employees better. In such cases, employees will often complain about needs the present situation does not satisfy.
Wednesday, January 23, 2008
Probability of obtaining a reward
Probability of obtaining a reward
Regardless of the value of the reward to an employee, she must know the probability of obtaining that reward. One way for a manager to do this is to establish procedural models that tell employees that if they perform as expected, rewards will follow. For instance, if Mary, an accountant, prepares a report, she should present it to the executive group. This will help her to fulfil her need for recognition and show her that her work is important. Also, it lets employees know that if they make a suggestion, they will be listened to. Such practice recognize a person as an individual.
I Another way of letting an employee know what the probability is of obtaining a reward is to tell him. For instance, "Mark, in the past we have had difficulty getting the test on the magnesium components done on time. I know this is a long, tedious job, so is you get it all completed by Tuesday, you can make the report to the plant manager's staff." Another example would be, "Rex, when you master the ~.se of this computer program, I will see if we can send )'ou to a special training program on the new system." On a different level, a manager might tell a new engineer that two of the last four engineers who worked in this area were given spocial corporate research projects whe~1 they received high exposure. .
Of course, a manager may not know Uie probability of an employee obtaining a particular reward when the employee perfonns in a satisfactory mmmer. For instance, a young salesperson may want a more responsible sales director. position. Unfortunately, the manager may not know if or when such a position might become available. Candor is important in these situations, and the manager
Regardless of the value of the reward to an employee, she must know the probability of obtaining that reward. One way for a manager to do this is to establish procedural models that tell employees that if they perform as expected, rewards will follow. For instance, if Mary, an accountant, prepares a report, she should present it to the executive group. This will help her to fulfil her need for recognition and show her that her work is important. Also, it lets employees know that if they make a suggestion, they will be listened to. Such practice recognize a person as an individual.
I Another way of letting an employee know what the probability is of obtaining a reward is to tell him. For instance, "Mark, in the past we have had difficulty getting the test on the magnesium components done on time. I know this is a long, tedious job, so is you get it all completed by Tuesday, you can make the report to the plant manager's staff." Another example would be, "Rex, when you master the ~.se of this computer program, I will see if we can send )'ou to a special training program on the new system." On a different level, a manager might tell a new engineer that two of the last four engineers who worked in this area were given spocial corporate research projects whe~1 they received high exposure. .
Of course, a manager may not know Uie probability of an employee obtaining a particular reward when the employee perfonns in a satisfactory mmmer. For instance, a young salesperson may want a more responsible sales director. position. Unfortunately, the manager may not know if or when such a position might become available. Candor is important in these situations, and the manager
the average manager is really helpless to use money as a reward.
this problem, unfortunately, most merit pay systems have failed. Significantly, employees are unable to perceive a direct relationship between pay and perfol1TIance.
Besides, the average manager is really helpless to use money as a reward. Assume that a company uses a merit system contingent upon an annual performance review. Employees find it extremely difficult to relate a specific performance that took place 11 months prior to a merit increase of may be 5 per cent. Of course, not only is a manager severely limited in the amount of merit pay that may be granted, but the merit pay will have little impact on take-home payor earning power in times of high inflation. In face, many managers may feel compelled to administer merit increases near the allowable maximum to even mediocre perfOlmers just to allow employees to keep pace with the high rate of inflation.
Because of the nature of merit systems in an era of inflation, money is really a negative rather than a positive motivational device. Employees may operate more from a fear of not receiving a customary increase rather than for extra incentive. Fear may develop because the salary is
important just -to meet the physical needs of having food, shelter, and clothing. This is not to say that money is not important when considering motivation; rather, it is to say that monetary rewards are not viable alternatives for the average manager considering ways to motivate employees to exert greater eff0l1 on the job.
A manager will succeed more by using effective
communication to emphasize the social and egotistical needs, Also, when managers emphasize the probability of
obtaining a reward. they meet with greater success in their
efforts to improve employee perfOlmance.
Besides, the average manager is really helpless to use money as a reward. Assume that a company uses a merit system contingent upon an annual performance review. Employees find it extremely difficult to relate a specific performance that took place 11 months prior to a merit increase of may be 5 per cent. Of course, not only is a manager severely limited in the amount of merit pay that may be granted, but the merit pay will have little impact on take-home payor earning power in times of high inflation. In face, many managers may feel compelled to administer merit increases near the allowable maximum to even mediocre perfOlmers just to allow employees to keep pace with the high rate of inflation.
Because of the nature of merit systems in an era of inflation, money is really a negative rather than a positive motivational device. Employees may operate more from a fear of not receiving a customary increase rather than for extra incentive. Fear may develop because the salary is
important just -to meet the physical needs of having food, shelter, and clothing. This is not to say that money is not important when considering motivation; rather, it is to say that monetary rewards are not viable alternatives for the average manager considering ways to motivate employees to exert greater eff0l1 on the job.
A manager will succeed more by using effective
communication to emphasize the social and egotistical needs, Also, when managers emphasize the probability of
obtaining a reward. they meet with greater success in their
efforts to improve employee perfOlmance.
through effective communication a manager can help an employee meet social and egotistical needs
questions, by listening to the employees, and by refraining from criticism when small errors are made.
The real impact communication can have as a tool for recognizing employees was verified by a quality control manager in a food processing plant. This manager has 32 people either directly or indirectly reporting to her. She listed each.person' s name in a small book. She then made a special point of talking to each person individually about something other than immediate work at hand at least once a week. The manager knew that with 32 people it would be easy to omit certain employees, so she put a checkmark after the person's name after the conversation. This meant that she took special care to recognize each
person individually at least' once a week even though it.
was a large department. The prevailing atmosphere within the department was one of trust and cooperation, and the manager was recognized by the plant manager for the fine performance in the department.
Clearly, through effective communication a manager can help an employee meet social and egotistical needs. But let us look at a common notion that has not been explored: money's role as motivator.
Mon~y as a form of reward
We could develop a lengthy debate about the relative importance of money as a motivator. While one research study could be cited about salary's effects on turnover,
---other research would indicate that many employees will actually stay on a particular job when they could change for increased salaries. The critical fact is that the monetary compensation must be related to immediate performance,
'. and this is where most compensation programs have failed. While merit programs are designed to overcome
The real impact communication can have as a tool for recognizing employees was verified by a quality control manager in a food processing plant. This manager has 32 people either directly or indirectly reporting to her. She listed each.person' s name in a small book. She then made a special point of talking to each person individually about something other than immediate work at hand at least once a week. The manager knew that with 32 people it would be easy to omit certain employees, so she put a checkmark after the person's name after the conversation. This meant that she took special care to recognize each
person individually at least' once a week even though it.
was a large department. The prevailing atmosphere within the department was one of trust and cooperation, and the manager was recognized by the plant manager for the fine performance in the department.
Clearly, through effective communication a manager can help an employee meet social and egotistical needs. But let us look at a common notion that has not been explored: money's role as motivator.
Mon~y as a form of reward
We could develop a lengthy debate about the relative importance of money as a motivator. While one research study could be cited about salary's effects on turnover,
---other research would indicate that many employees will actually stay on a particular job when they could change for increased salaries. The critical fact is that the monetary compensation must be related to immediate performance,
'. and this is where most compensation programs have failed. While merit programs are designed to overcome
Ensure that credit is given to those to whom it is due
practice, involves small groups of people who regularly do similar work. The groups meet to identify and analyze causes of problems and recommend their solutions to management. But for the quality circles to really work, effective managers must coordinate them. Larry Nelson, a consultant specializing in quality circles, maintains that the following participant conduct is important for a circle to be effective:
.
Listen to, and show respect for the views of other members.
Critique ideas, not persons.
.
Treat everyone as equal.
Ensure that credit is given to those to whom it is
due.
As these suggest, each person is recognized as
important to the process. .
In the business section of a Tokyo newspaper, Tateo Tsunemi, a Japanese expert on American business, recently indicated many American business managers on the grounds of their dictatorial approach toward workers. These managers do not understand the mentality of the workers and they do not necessarily have confidence in the workers in the way that their Japanese counterparts do. Obviously, managers must show that they trust their employees to communicate a sense of recognition and importance.
Some managers believe that they show adequate recognition to employees by saying "good morning" or by telling them occasionally that they have done a good job. Of course, this is important, but a manager shows a more meaningful level of recognition by asking the employees
.
Listen to, and show respect for the views of other members.
Critique ideas, not persons.
.
Treat everyone as equal.
Ensure that credit is given to those to whom it is
due.
As these suggest, each person is recognized as
important to the process. .
In the business section of a Tokyo newspaper, Tateo Tsunemi, a Japanese expert on American business, recently indicated many American business managers on the grounds of their dictatorial approach toward workers. These managers do not understand the mentality of the workers and they do not necessarily have confidence in the workers in the way that their Japanese counterparts do. Obviously, managers must show that they trust their employees to communicate a sense of recognition and importance.
Some managers believe that they show adequate recognition to employees by saying "good morning" or by telling them occasionally that they have done a good job. Of course, this is important, but a manager shows a more meaningful level of recognition by asking the employees
This concept, a take-off on Japanese management
and goes a long way toward motivating an individual to meet group goals.
The manager who blocks an employee's need to belong is one who develops intense competition between employees, does not keep employees equally informed on important matters, or may even isolate certain employees for privileged information. This manager also eliminates opportunities for group decision-making and attempts to keep employees isolated on important matters. This type of manager assumes the central role of total responsibility and credit and blocks any efforts to the group or gain a sense of achievement. On the other hand, the operation of the effective manager communicates in a manner that assists employees to meet their need to belong.
A manager can help-employees satisfy their egotistical needs by communicating their importance to the company
and recognizing them as individuals. Two out of three'
companies have formal recognition programs, and most personnel managers believe that recognition programs help keep and motivate employees. But it is often difficult to make formal programs effective at the individual level. Thus, the free trip to Hawaii gives a lot of recognition to one employee, but what about all the others? This is why.. each manager is so important at the individual level. 1\t that level he can give individual recognition by simply asking employees for' their ideas and listening to them. Such recognition makes an individual feel worthwhile and important to the company. For this reason, the concepts of participation and quality circles have become such popular concepts with American management. Let us take a quick look at quality circles.
This concept, a take-off on Japanese management
The manager who blocks an employee's need to belong is one who develops intense competition between employees, does not keep employees equally informed on important matters, or may even isolate certain employees for privileged information. This manager also eliminates opportunities for group decision-making and attempts to keep employees isolated on important matters. This type of manager assumes the central role of total responsibility and credit and blocks any efforts to the group or gain a sense of achievement. On the other hand, the operation of the effective manager communicates in a manner that assists employees to meet their need to belong.
A manager can help-employees satisfy their egotistical needs by communicating their importance to the company
and recognizing them as individuals. Two out of three'
companies have formal recognition programs, and most personnel managers believe that recognition programs help keep and motivate employees. But it is often difficult to make formal programs effective at the individual level. Thus, the free trip to Hawaii gives a lot of recognition to one employee, but what about all the others? This is why.. each manager is so important at the individual level. 1\t that level he can give individual recognition by simply asking employees for' their ideas and listening to them. Such recognition makes an individual feel worthwhile and important to the company. For this reason, the concepts of participation and quality circles have become such popular concepts with American management. Let us take a quick look at quality circles.
This concept, a take-off on Japanese management
Egotistical needs differ from social needs in their orientation.
the like. Social needs are those that are satisfied only in relationship with other people. The affiliation drive-the need to associate with others-is an example of this. We have all seen a tremendous need to conform expressed by an individual at one time or another. This is an example of affIliation or social need.
Egotistical needs differ from social needs in their orientation. Even though the social needs are instrumental in gratifying egotistical needs, these needs are directed toward the maintenance or enhancement of one's ego or one's self. FulfIlling these needs makes people feel good about themselves. Among the goals of egotistical needs are to achieve, to be important, dominant, autonomous, to be "somebody." Recognition, prestige, esteem, fame, status, and reputation are among the common means for gratifying egotistical needs. For instance, people often feel like they are "somebody" when they have accomplished something for the fIrst time, even if nobody else knows about it.
How does all this relate to the manager who is trying to motivate employees to improve work performance? It suggests that a manager or supervisor can help an employee meet many of his needs. For example, the affiliation need can be met by communicating to employees that they "belong" to the work group. It means involving new employees in group projects where others listen to their views as soon as the new employees join the company. It means letting employees participate in
decisions rather than just telling them ~hat their job duties
are. It also means taking the time to visit with them about tbings important to them-family, hobbies current events-in addition to job-related activities. Verbal interaction is extremely important in the affiliation motive
Egotistical needs differ from social needs in their orientation. Even though the social needs are instrumental in gratifying egotistical needs, these needs are directed toward the maintenance or enhancement of one's ego or one's self. FulfIlling these needs makes people feel good about themselves. Among the goals of egotistical needs are to achieve, to be important, dominant, autonomous, to be "somebody." Recognition, prestige, esteem, fame, status, and reputation are among the common means for gratifying egotistical needs. For instance, people often feel like they are "somebody" when they have accomplished something for the fIrst time, even if nobody else knows about it.
How does all this relate to the manager who is trying to motivate employees to improve work performance? It suggests that a manager or supervisor can help an employee meet many of his needs. For example, the affiliation need can be met by communicating to employees that they "belong" to the work group. It means involving new employees in group projects where others listen to their views as soon as the new employees join the company. It means letting employees participate in
decisions rather than just telling them ~hat their job duties
are. It also means taking the time to visit with them about tbings important to them-family, hobbies current events-in addition to job-related activities. Verbal interaction is extremely important in the affiliation motive
We may analyze rewards in mlply ways
and their applicability can be questioned, fortunately the volumes of research have led to some simplified conclusions that are easy to understand and apply. The following performance model presents these results in a simplified manner and follows the advice of Terpstra"borrow from the best.' The model integrates the popular models presented by Vroom, B.F. Skinner, Locke, Herzberg, and Maslow. Rather than introduce another motivational model, we propose to provide a framework for strategic communication that managers can implement for improved motivation.
Rewards-efforts
Thorndike's law of effect, one of the only unequivocably established laws of human behaviour, simply states \hat a behaviour that results in a pleasurable outcomes tends to be repeated, whereas a behaviour that results in a nonpleasurable outcome tends not to be repeated. The value of the reward and the probability of obtaining the reward determine the amount of effort that an employee will exert on the job. The greater the reward for workers, the greater their effort. In addition, workers often do not know what the probability is of obtaining the desired reward when they perform in a certain manner. Increased probability of success leads to increased effort.
We may analyze rewards in mlply ways, but one of the more universally accepted approaches is in terms of needs; people have needs, and when these needs are satisfied as the result of some behaviour, a pleasurable or satisfying feeling-a reward-results.
Langer distinguishes three classes of needs: physical, social, and egotistical. The physical needs are for food and water, for air, temperature control, sleep, elimination, and
Rewards-efforts
Thorndike's law of effect, one of the only unequivocably established laws of human behaviour, simply states \hat a behaviour that results in a pleasurable outcomes tends to be repeated, whereas a behaviour that results in a nonpleasurable outcome tends not to be repeated. The value of the reward and the probability of obtaining the reward determine the amount of effort that an employee will exert on the job. The greater the reward for workers, the greater their effort. In addition, workers often do not know what the probability is of obtaining the desired reward when they perform in a certain manner. Increased probability of success leads to increased effort.
We may analyze rewards in mlply ways, but one of the more universally accepted approaches is in terms of needs; people have needs, and when these needs are satisfied as the result of some behaviour, a pleasurable or satisfying feeling-a reward-results.
Langer distinguishes three classes of needs: physical, social, and egotistical. The physical needs are for food and water, for air, temperature control, sleep, elimination, and
motivational theory is so difficult to implement
that applied three different between motivational concepts and concluded that there was little difference between the companies. He further concluded that the main problem was that the theories were misapplied for two possible reasons (1) the degree of expertise required to implement the theories is beyond most professional managers, and (2) the theories are not applicable to all individuals in all situations. Miller contends that many proponents of motivational theories encourage managers to fit round theories into square holes.
Because motivational theory is so difficult to implement, more and more companies are seeing that the link between motivation and performance improvement is communication. Such companies as Oneida Silversmiths,
National Can Corporation, New York Life Insurance, and. Kohler have initiated programs that stress communication as the critical element in employee motivation.
Why do these companies stress communication when considering employee motivation? Effective communication is what managers use to improve an employee's sense of self-worth by showing recognition, reinforcing a job well done, and providing a general sense of support. Communication is the tool that is available to every manager. Not every manager can give an employee a raise or use a promotion as an incentive; however, every manager can use effective motivational communication. This chapter shows specifically how communication is the central ingredient in the motivational process and presents techniques that every manager can use to improve performance in the workplace.
The basic elements in employee motivation
Although motivational theories can become rather complex
Because motivational theory is so difficult to implement, more and more companies are seeing that the link between motivation and performance improvement is communication. Such companies as Oneida Silversmiths,
National Can Corporation, New York Life Insurance, and. Kohler have initiated programs that stress communication as the critical element in employee motivation.
Why do these companies stress communication when considering employee motivation? Effective communication is what managers use to improve an employee's sense of self-worth by showing recognition, reinforcing a job well done, and providing a general sense of support. Communication is the tool that is available to every manager. Not every manager can give an employee a raise or use a promotion as an incentive; however, every manager can use effective motivational communication. This chapter shows specifically how communication is the central ingredient in the motivational process and presents techniques that every manager can use to improve performance in the workplace.
The basic elements in employee motivation
Although motivational theories can become rather complex
COMMUNICATION, MOTIVATION AND PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT
COMMUNICATION, MOTIVATION AND PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT
The abundance of motivational theories from which managers can choose testifies to the fact that employee motivation remains one of the most fascinating but perplexing areas of managerial concern. Few employees work to their full ability; in fact, studies show that in some cases workers can perform at only 20 to 30 per cent of their ability without being fired and that average
employees work at only two-thirds of their capacities. A machine that produced so poorly would be repaired or replaced. What can managers of human resources do to overcome this waste and inefficiency?
Frankly, the values of all the different motivational
theories can be seriously questioned. To quote Odiorne, "Has all of the talk and work on teaching motivational theory been overdone? I'd like to suggest that it has."
Leidecker and Hall review the major motivational theories and state that when these theories are applied in the "real world," the results are often negative or, at best, neutral.
Miller made a comprehensive effort to determine if different motivational theories had an impact in the
organization. Miller analyzed three different organizations
The abundance of motivational theories from which managers can choose testifies to the fact that employee motivation remains one of the most fascinating but perplexing areas of managerial concern. Few employees work to their full ability; in fact, studies show that in some cases workers can perform at only 20 to 30 per cent of their ability without being fired and that average
employees work at only two-thirds of their capacities. A machine that produced so poorly would be repaired or replaced. What can managers of human resources do to overcome this waste and inefficiency?
Frankly, the values of all the different motivational
theories can be seriously questioned. To quote Odiorne, "Has all of the talk and work on teaching motivational theory been overdone? I'd like to suggest that it has."
Leidecker and Hall review the major motivational theories and state that when these theories are applied in the "real world," the results are often negative or, at best, neutral.
Miller made a comprehensive effort to determine if different motivational theories had an impact in the
organization. Miller analyzed three different organizations
Monday, January 21, 2008
Organization performance Bavelas and Barrett believe:
to start operations with a 'classes' factory. It is, however, noticeable that the older plants have more eTaborate 'perks systems' than younger .factories. This suggests. that the pressures to add to existing status systems become progressively harder to resist. The pseudo-scientific observations of Parkinson's law of the rising pyramid and the Peter principle that in a hierarchy every employee tends to rise to his level of incompetence
Organization performance Bavelas and Barrett believe:
It is entirely possible to view an organization on an elaborate system for gathering, evaluating, recombining and disseminating information. It is not surprising, in these terms that the effectiveness of an organization with respect to the achievement of its goals should be so closely rested to its effectiveness in handling information.
Drucker, on the other hand, sees related innovation
as one of the prime objectives of any organization, and it can be argued that in electronics-a rapidly developing industry with a high rate of Qbsolescence-innovation may be the prime objective.
These two views did not conflict with the findings of this study. Of th.e seven finns involved in this study, four have received the Queen's Award to industry for innovation. It may be significant that the same four fums had the highest average communication accuracy scores of
the study.
Organization performance Bavelas and Barrett believe:
It is entirely possible to view an organization on an elaborate system for gathering, evaluating, recombining and disseminating information. It is not surprising, in these terms that the effectiveness of an organization with respect to the achievement of its goals should be so closely rested to its effectiveness in handling information.
Drucker, on the other hand, sees related innovation
as one of the prime objectives of any organization, and it can be argued that in electronics-a rapidly developing industry with a high rate of Qbsolescence-innovation may be the prime objective.
These two views did not conflict with the findings of this study. Of th.e seven finns involved in this study, four have received the Queen's Award to industry for innovation. It may be significant that the same four fums had the highest average communication accuracy scores of
the study.
Need for a Substitute for promotion and other Factors
floor, workers in this age of higher education have severely limited promotional opportunities. A Fortune magazine study of 900 top executives found that less than 8 per cent had risen from the shop floor. When the study, asked only at managers under 50 years of age this parentage dropped to 5 per cent. If the workers have similar desires for advancement as do the managers, then, like the managers, these, desires may be increased by elaborate symbols devised primarily for managerial and not worker motivation. Their need for a substitute may be increased by these systems-as they are for the managers-and one form their substitute might take could be stronger demands' for wage increases and industrial recognition, e.g. in the form of trade unions. Professor Norman Hunt of the Edinburgh Business School quotes a survey of several hundred American companies which tried to assess the value of profit sharing as a means of promoting industrial peace. Of those companies practising profit sharing at all levels 9.9 per cent had experienced recent strikes, while 23.4 per cent of those companies not practising profit sharing at any level had had strikes. However, of the companies having profit sharing for managers only-an extra status differential-30.6 per cent had had recent strikes.
Need for a Substitute for promotion and other Factors
Numbers of Correlation Pr.obability
measurements coefficient
Status symbols
Difference in
Education
58
53
+0.19
+0.20
0.08
0.07
It would seem easier for firms setting up new plants
Need for a Substitute for promotion and other Factors
Numbers of Correlation Pr.obability
measurements coefficient
Status symbols
Difference in
Education
58
53
+0.19
+0.20
0.08
0.07
It would seem easier for firms setting up new plants
Need for a substitute for promoti01l a1ld the freque1lcy of commu1licatiol/ with superiors
instrumental theory which suggests that communicating
frequericy will be higher towards managers with
considerable power-this in fact was not the case. An alternative explanation is possible from other studies
although the use of the word 'psychological' may be
misleading. The managers dissatisfied with their rate of
achieving promotion may consciously 'over-communicate' with their superiors to draw attention to themselves and to ensure that they are not forgotten, especially when
promotions are imminent.
COMMUNICATING FREQUENCY
SUBSTIWTE NEED
WITH THE IMMEDATE LOW SUPERIOR
MEDIUM
HIGH
WITH THE IMMEDATE SUPERIOR AND HIS SUPERIOR
LOW
MEDIUM
HIGH
Need for a substitute for promoti01l a1ld the freque1lcy of commu1licatiol/ with superiors
It is worth noting that although the 'perks system' did increase this need for a substitute for promotion, few of the other status differences had any effect. It may be again that the important factor is one of visibility of the status difference, and that the perception of visibility may vary according to the type of organization involved. Although this electronics study did not extend to the shop
frequericy will be higher towards managers with
considerable power-this in fact was not the case. An alternative explanation is possible from other studies
although the use of the word 'psychological' may be
misleading. The managers dissatisfied with their rate of
achieving promotion may consciously 'over-communicate' with their superiors to draw attention to themselves and to ensure that they are not forgotten, especially when
promotions are imminent.
COMMUNICATING FREQUENCY
SUBSTIWTE NEED
WITH THE IMMEDATE LOW SUPERIOR
MEDIUM
HIGH
WITH THE IMMEDATE SUPERIOR AND HIS SUPERIOR
LOW
MEDIUM
HIGH
Need for a substitute for promoti01l a1ld the freque1lcy of commu1licatiol/ with superiors
It is worth noting that although the 'perks system' did increase this need for a substitute for promotion, few of the other status differences had any effect. It may be again that the important factor is one of visibility of the status difference, and that the perception of visibility may vary according to the type of organization involved. Although this electronics study did not extend to the shop
One substitute for upward movement can be upward
LOW
SUPERVISORY MEDIUM
LEVEL
HIGH
LOW
SUPERVISORY MEDIUM
POWER
HIGH
LOW
BACKGROUND MEDIUM
DIFFERENCES
HIGH
[~j . ([j)
175
Desire for promotion and other factors.
Although the status symbol syndrome could not be shown to affect the communication accuracy score directly, it has been already pointed out that strong promotional desires of this sort cause subordinates to restrict adverse information about themselves in_attempting to create a 'rosy picture' to their superiors. Firms with an intricate 'honours' system thus tend to create managers with stronger promotional desires. If those managers experience little promotion, then a mismatch of need and achievement may occur. To avoid considerable dissatisfaction an alternative outlet may be sought.
One substitute for upward movement can be upward
communication. Whereas managers with little mismatch of need and achievement kept their communications to reasonable levels, managers with a greater need for a psychological substitute tended to communicate more frequently with their superiors.
This finding is somewhat different from the simple
SUPERVISORY MEDIUM
LEVEL
HIGH
LOW
SUPERVISORY MEDIUM
POWER
HIGH
LOW
BACKGROUND MEDIUM
DIFFERENCES
HIGH
[~j . ([j)
175
Desire for promotion and other factors.
Although the status symbol syndrome could not be shown to affect the communication accuracy score directly, it has been already pointed out that strong promotional desires of this sort cause subordinates to restrict adverse information about themselves in_attempting to create a 'rosy picture' to their superiors. Firms with an intricate 'honours' system thus tend to create managers with stronger promotional desires. If those managers experience little promotion, then a mismatch of need and achievement may occur. To avoid considerable dissatisfaction an alternative outlet may be sought.
One substitute for upward movement can be upward
communication. Whereas managers with little mismatch of need and achievement kept their communications to reasonable levels, managers with a greater need for a psychological substitute tended to communicate more frequently with their superiors.
This finding is somewhat different from the simple
social background differences, and age differences.
The elaJ:>oration of the 'visible' status system tended to have only adverse effects among the firms studied. The desire for promotion was greater as the elaborations increased.
In general it seems that the more apparent the status division the more promotion minded are the subordinates. By way of example one firm with higher than average promotion drive scores ensures that following each' grade' change the manager has his 'new desk' or 'external telephone' installed within a maximum of 3 days, proclaiming in a most visible way the change in status. One of their three staff dining rooms caters for two levels of middle management. Not only are the tables graded by the presence or absence of table cloths but also at the coffee section china cups are provided for the higher grade while paper cups are provided for the others. One manager told me of an occasion when a new waitress was working in this section. Seemingly she issued the china cups on a first-come first-served basis and then started to use up the paper cups. There was no problem until the china cups ran out, but after this great embarrassment was caused by a number of the higher grade managers refusing to use the paper cups-insisting on their 'rights'. Because of this and other similar problems, this company is in the process of solving 'this problem by constructing yet another dining room to separate the two grades.
Other visible differentials had the similar effect of increasing the desire for promotion, viz, supervisory level, superior's power, social background differences, and age differences.
In general it seems that the more apparent the status division the more promotion minded are the subordinates. By way of example one firm with higher than average promotion drive scores ensures that following each' grade' change the manager has his 'new desk' or 'external telephone' installed within a maximum of 3 days, proclaiming in a most visible way the change in status. One of their three staff dining rooms caters for two levels of middle management. Not only are the tables graded by the presence or absence of table cloths but also at the coffee section china cups are provided for the higher grade while paper cups are provided for the others. One manager told me of an occasion when a new waitress was working in this section. Seemingly she issued the china cups on a first-come first-served basis and then started to use up the paper cups. There was no problem until the china cups ran out, but after this great embarrassment was caused by a number of the higher grade managers refusing to use the paper cups-insisting on their 'rights'. Because of this and other similar problems, this company is in the process of solving 'this problem by constructing yet another dining room to separate the two grades.
Other visible differentials had the similar effect of increasing the desire for promotion, viz, supervisory level, superior's power, social background differences, and age differences.
The British canteen system
The British canteen system is disgusting a!1d humiliating-more or less saying to someone 'You're not good enough to eat with us', and the toilet system is even worse. Imagine the directors saying openly to middle management 'YoUr hygiene is such that you can't with us.' They'd never dare say it but they imply it by having their toilets locked.
While a manager from the firm with the most
elaborate system stated that:
We feel that toilets and works canteens come into the same category, a place where any employee can go and shout his mouth off and not worry about being overhead. By. the same token the top executives can discuss confidential matters in their own toilet without us overhearing and vice-versa.
Presumably this manager had not read about an amazing 1965 American survey in which a quarter of the eighty-seven firms involved eavesdropped by 'bugging' works toilets.
While a manager from the firm with the most
elaborate system stated that:
We feel that toilets and works canteens come into the same category, a place where any employee can go and shout his mouth off and not worry about being overhead. By. the same token the top executives can discuss confidential matters in their own toilet without us overhearing and vice-versa.
Presumably this manager had not read about an amazing 1965 American survey in which a quarter of the eighty-seven firms involved eavesdropped by 'bugging' works toilets.
status of all the electronics finns in my study, having some sixteen grades for the sixty employees occupying staff positions.
status of all the electronics finns in my study, having some sixteen grades for the sixty employees occupying staff positions.
It seems reasonable to presume that a 'perks system' forms part of a reward system for better performance, especially at higher tax levels when salary increases are supposed to lose much of their meaning. It is doubtful that salary levels are the most important status symbols available, particularly at the top of major companies. Robert McNamara, for example, left the presidency of the Ford Company to become US Secretary of Defense. His annual salary shrank from around $400..000 to $20,000, but his reputation expanded from US business cn-des to the world's informed public.
It seems reasonable to assume that companies with elaborate status differentiation believe, like one director said that: 'If people in business were more clearly identified by the luxury of their offices, those in lower grades would try harder to do a better job. and reach higher positions.'
Among the electronic managers, however, this was not the case. The finns with an elaborate system of status symbols had managers of no better past achievement than firms with less elaborate systems. Judging by the comments of the managers in the two firms at opposite ends of the status differential scale, considerable rationalization of each firm's philosophy had occurred after the managers had settled down into the existing schemes. In both of these firms most of the managers interviewed' had become content with their respective
. systems even though the 'logic' behind them was often in direct conflict. A manager from the 'status free' factory commented:
It seems reasonable to presume that a 'perks system' forms part of a reward system for better performance, especially at higher tax levels when salary increases are supposed to lose much of their meaning. It is doubtful that salary levels are the most important status symbols available, particularly at the top of major companies. Robert McNamara, for example, left the presidency of the Ford Company to become US Secretary of Defense. His annual salary shrank from around $400..000 to $20,000, but his reputation expanded from US business cn-des to the world's informed public.
It seems reasonable to assume that companies with elaborate status differentiation believe, like one director said that: 'If people in business were more clearly identified by the luxury of their offices, those in lower grades would try harder to do a better job. and reach higher positions.'
Among the electronic managers, however, this was not the case. The finns with an elaborate system of status symbols had managers of no better past achievement than firms with less elaborate systems. Judging by the comments of the managers in the two firms at opposite ends of the status differential scale, considerable rationalization of each firm's philosophy had occurred after the managers had settled down into the existing schemes. In both of these firms most of the managers interviewed' had become content with their respective
. systems even though the 'logic' behind them was often in direct conflict. A manager from the 'status free' factory commented:
. what started out to be a managementimprovement effort not only led in the course of one year
An investigation of who left and why revealed three
factors; among the foremen who left there was (1) high
proportion of intelligent men; (2) a high proportion of
men with relatively few years of service. although even
among men with over 10 years of service 39 per cent
were dissatisfied; and (3) very high percentage of men
who had regular contact with senior management.
Apparently this last factor was most important. in that it
revealed directly to the foremen how little a change of
attitude had actually occurred among senior management.
In summary. what started out to be a managementimprovement effort not only led in the course of one year
to a severe conflict between first-line supervisors dnd
senior management and res~lted in no change in management attitudes. but also produced a high rate of turnover among some of the very men whom the company needed to keep. What the organization and the consultant had failed to foreseen was the complex relationships among the several sub-systems of the organization-the forema group. junior management. senior management. and the managing director. Had the training course been adequately thought out in terms of its potential effects on these various sub-systems. the disastrous effects might have been avoided.
Status symbols
Status differentiation in industry is commonly achieved by the use of symbols. Although this topic has received considerable attention in the news media. it has usually been of a comic nature. With the amount of .time and money spent in establishing equity in the system. it is perhaps surprising that almost no research work has been done on measuring its effects. One firm's grading system was introduced thus: 'Considerable thought has been given to the most equitable manner in laying down guidelines for the seniority and status of the company's staff.'
This firm had. in fact, the most elaborate. system of
factors; among the foremen who left there was (1) high
proportion of intelligent men; (2) a high proportion of
men with relatively few years of service. although even
among men with over 10 years of service 39 per cent
were dissatisfied; and (3) very high percentage of men
who had regular contact with senior management.
Apparently this last factor was most important. in that it
revealed directly to the foremen how little a change of
attitude had actually occurred among senior management.
In summary. what started out to be a managementimprovement effort not only led in the course of one year
to a severe conflict between first-line supervisors dnd
senior management and res~lted in no change in management attitudes. but also produced a high rate of turnover among some of the very men whom the company needed to keep. What the organization and the consultant had failed to foreseen was the complex relationships among the several sub-systems of the organization-the forema group. junior management. senior management. and the managing director. Had the training course been adequately thought out in terms of its potential effects on these various sub-systems. the disastrous effects might have been avoided.
Status symbols
Status differentiation in industry is commonly achieved by the use of symbols. Although this topic has received considerable attention in the news media. it has usually been of a comic nature. With the amount of .time and money spent in establishing equity in the system. it is perhaps surprising that almost no research work has been done on measuring its effects. One firm's grading system was introduced thus: 'Considerable thought has been given to the most equitable manner in laying down guidelines for the seniority and status of the company's staff.'
This firm had. in fact, the most elaborate. system of
Length of superior-subordinate relationship and other factors
some time their promotion desire and need for a substitute for promotion were both increased with the possibilities of the resulting adverse effects. Statistical tests also showed that a long relationship was not indicative of low performance or a lack of past promotion-many of .the managers having risen together. One manager described his way around this problem: 'I try to move jimior staff around to relieve their boredom. When they are in their early twenties, stuck to one section with others in their late twenties and have boss at over 40, it discourages the more ambitious ones.. They cannot see ways of getting ahead. '
Length of superior-subordinate relationship and other factors I
.
Number of Correlation Probability
measurements coefficient
Desire for
promotion 60 +0.17 0.09 \
Need for
a substitute
for promotion 58 +0.26 0.02
Returning to. the training methods of role playing, job rotation, etc., simultaneous with the expected growth in the ability to see the other man's point of view should come a skill in redefining apparently conflicting aims in terms of common goals. This should also result in improvements in communication accuracy and career achievement
Perhaps of relevance here is the point that the
introduction of new techniques and espe~ially ones of a
'psychological' character,. require .top-management
Length of superior-subordinate relationship and other factors I
.
Number of Correlation Probability
measurements coefficient
Desire for
promotion 60 +0.17 0.09 \
Need for
a substitute
for promotion 58 +0.26 0.02
Returning to. the training methods of role playing, job rotation, etc., simultaneous with the expected growth in the ability to see the other man's point of view should come a skill in redefining apparently conflicting aims in terms of common goals. This should also result in improvements in communication accuracy and career achievement
Perhaps of relevance here is the point that the
introduction of new techniques and espe~ially ones of a
'psychological' character,. require .top-management
concentrate attention upon, the most important elements of the manager's job. '
concentrate attention upon, the most important elements of the manager's job. '
(b) The subsequent appraisal of pelformance will identify
and enable the correction of factors which have
impeded the attainment of the objectives.
(c) The motivation of managers will be increased by their
J. " .
partICIpatIon 10 target settmg.
A crucial question for the success of management by
objectives is whether it will be seen to be a system of
imposed control or 'a system of control exerted by the
individual himself, and this in turn requires that both superior and subordinate have some appreciation of the basic pitfalls involved.
Training
Contrary to many industrialists' beliefs, superiors who had flot previously held their subordinate's job achieved higher communication accuracy scores than those managers who had their subordinate's job. As was pointed out, the answer may have a to do with the extra effort the 'inexperienced' superior has to put into his communication with subordinates who control phases of work with which he is unfamiliar; conversely, the 'experienced' manager may be somewhat more lax. As promotions seem to go more often to 'experienced' men than their 'inexperienced'
colleagues, this may be creating majo~ communication,
problems in industry-problems which training. specialists are trying to overcome by the use of job rotation, role laying, and case-study techniques in management development programmes.
Concerning job rotation, it was of interest to note that when subordinates has been with their superior for
(b) The subsequent appraisal of pelformance will identify
and enable the correction of factors which have
impeded the attainment of the objectives.
(c) The motivation of managers will be increased by their
J. " .
partICIpatIon 10 target settmg.
A crucial question for the success of management by
objectives is whether it will be seen to be a system of
imposed control or 'a system of control exerted by the
individual himself, and this in turn requires that both superior and subordinate have some appreciation of the basic pitfalls involved.
Training
Contrary to many industrialists' beliefs, superiors who had flot previously held their subordinate's job achieved higher communication accuracy scores than those managers who had their subordinate's job. As was pointed out, the answer may have a to do with the extra effort the 'inexperienced' superior has to put into his communication with subordinates who control phases of work with which he is unfamiliar; conversely, the 'experienced' manager may be somewhat more lax. As promotions seem to go more often to 'experienced' men than their 'inexperienced'
colleagues, this may be creating majo~ communication,
problems in industry-problems which training. specialists are trying to overcome by the use of job rotation, role laying, and case-study techniques in management development programmes.
Concerning job rotation, it was of interest to note that when subordinates has been with their superior for
A crucial question for the success of management by
concentrate attention upon, the most important elements of the manager's job. '
(b) The subsequent appraisal of pelformance will identify
and enable the correction of factors which have
impeded the attainment of the objectives.
(c) The motivation of managers will be increased by their
J. " .
partICIpatIon 10 target settmg.
A crucial question for the success of management by
objectives is whether it will be seen to be a system of
imposed control or 'a system of control exerted by the
individual himself, and this in turn requires that both superior and subordinate have some appreciation of the basic pitfalls involved.
Training
Contrary to many industrialists' beliefs, superiors who had flot previously held their subordinate's job achieved higher communication accuracy scores than those managers who had their subordinate's job. As was pointed out, the answer may have a to do with the extra effort the 'inexperienced' superior has to put into his communication with subordinates who control phases of work with which he is unfamiliar; conversely, the 'experienced' manager may be somewhat more lax. As promotions seem to go more often to 'experienced' men than their 'inexperienced'
colleagues, this may be creating majo~ communication,
problems in industry-problems which training. specialists are trying to overcome by the use of job rotation, role laying, and case-study techniques in management development programmes.
Concerning job rotation, it was of interest to note that when subordinates has been with their superior for
(b) The subsequent appraisal of pelformance will identify
and enable the correction of factors which have
impeded the attainment of the objectives.
(c) The motivation of managers will be increased by their
J. " .
partICIpatIon 10 target settmg.
A crucial question for the success of management by
objectives is whether it will be seen to be a system of
imposed control or 'a system of control exerted by the
individual himself, and this in turn requires that both superior and subordinate have some appreciation of the basic pitfalls involved.
Training
Contrary to many industrialists' beliefs, superiors who had flot previously held their subordinate's job achieved higher communication accuracy scores than those managers who had their subordinate's job. As was pointed out, the answer may have a to do with the extra effort the 'inexperienced' superior has to put into his communication with subordinates who control phases of work with which he is unfamiliar; conversely, the 'experienced' manager may be somewhat more lax. As promotions seem to go more often to 'experienced' men than their 'inexperienced'
colleagues, this may be creating majo~ communication,
problems in industry-problems which training. specialists are trying to overcome by the use of job rotation, role laying, and case-study techniques in management development programmes.
Concerning job rotation, it was of interest to note that when subordinates has been with their superior for
Management by objectives
you, some fellows I have never seen in this office but-I'll I be in the yard and they will talk to me there-on their ,
own ground as it were'. .
I
It would seem that for all the schemes mentioned in
this chapter, the ultimate success or failure may depend '. upon the degree of trust and confidence existing between;
the participants. Any scheme adopted could be judged to a considerable degree upon the 'net growth' of trust and confidence that it generates.
Management by objectives
Of the many books on organization techniques for the improvement of communication and performance, the philosophy which at present seems to be based most closely on the studies already reviewed is that of management by objectives. This theory is itself an example
of 'pay-off in organizational studies being developed from. the group dynamics research initiated by the late Kurt, ! Lewin of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Briefly, the theory of management by objectives. , involves the setting of specific performance targets to be achieved in a given time. The targets may be set for the.
entire organization or for any part of it. The setting of the objectives ideally involves a superior and subordinate jointly, and at the end of the time period, both examine the subordinate's performance in terms of the extent to which the objectives have been achieved. If possible, the objectives should be qualified.
The benefits expected from the introduction of the system are, of course, greater all round efficiency. More specifically:
(a) The operation of the system will identify, and
own ground as it were'. .
I
It would seem that for all the schemes mentioned in
this chapter, the ultimate success or failure may depend '. upon the degree of trust and confidence existing between;
the participants. Any scheme adopted could be judged to a considerable degree upon the 'net growth' of trust and confidence that it generates.
Management by objectives
Of the many books on organization techniques for the improvement of communication and performance, the philosophy which at present seems to be based most closely on the studies already reviewed is that of management by objectives. This theory is itself an example
of 'pay-off in organizational studies being developed from. the group dynamics research initiated by the late Kurt, ! Lewin of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Briefly, the theory of management by objectives. , involves the setting of specific performance targets to be achieved in a given time. The targets may be set for the.
entire organization or for any part of it. The setting of the objectives ideally involves a superior and subordinate jointly, and at the end of the time period, both examine the subordinate's performance in terms of the extent to which the objectives have been achieved. If possible, the objectives should be qualified.
The benefits expected from the introduction of the system are, of course, greater all round efficiency. More specifically:
(a) The operation of the system will identify, and
There is no evidence that morale is improved.
(c) There is no evidence that morale is improved.
(d) Turning down suggestions can lower morale.
(e) The result of these schemes is a. bypassing of .
supervisory levels and can create suspicion both
among managers and union officials.
(t) Staff personnel excluded from the scheme may pa~s their. suggestions up through eligible workers instead of their superior.
This latter point is illustrated by the following quote from one of the managers I interviewed: 'There is no encouragement from top management for suggestions so I pass my ideas on to other interested people-like youwork study people, etc. They get them implemented because they can get to the right ears and then they get the credit, not me.'
Many supervisors see the 'open-door' policy as an attempt to bypass their levels of supervision presumably because top management believe that communication blocks are occurring among the bypassed managers-an attitude not likely to improve their morale. Another possible problem with an 'open-door' policy is that the manager's office, even witp. its door open or in open plan, is still his territory. That popular zoologist Desmond Morris, author of The Naked Ape, would suggest that for the subordinate to leave his own territory and come to. the boss's 'lair' is often itself a sign of submission and perhaps not the best start to establishing 'free open communication '-so often the stated aim of these types of policies. As another manager from the study explained
it: 'I try to have an open-door policy. It takes a lot of time but it's the only way of keeping trouble down. Mind
(d) Turning down suggestions can lower morale.
(e) The result of these schemes is a. bypassing of .
supervisory levels and can create suspicion both
among managers and union officials.
(t) Staff personnel excluded from the scheme may pa~s their. suggestions up through eligible workers instead of their superior.
This latter point is illustrated by the following quote from one of the managers I interviewed: 'There is no encouragement from top management for suggestions so I pass my ideas on to other interested people-like youwork study people, etc. They get them implemented because they can get to the right ears and then they get the credit, not me.'
Many supervisors see the 'open-door' policy as an attempt to bypass their levels of supervision presumably because top management believe that communication blocks are occurring among the bypassed managers-an attitude not likely to improve their morale. Another possible problem with an 'open-door' policy is that the manager's office, even witp. its door open or in open plan, is still his territory. That popular zoologist Desmond Morris, author of The Naked Ape, would suggest that for the subordinate to leave his own territory and come to. the boss's 'lair' is often itself a sign of submission and perhaps not the best start to establishing 'free open communication '-so often the stated aim of these types of policies. As another manager from the study explained
it: 'I try to have an open-door policy. It takes a lot of time but it's the only way of keeping trouble down. Mind
Suggestion schemes and 'open-door' policies
half of the firm using performance appraisal did not involve the subordin~te at all, while only eight firms involved three levels of management-subordinate, superior, and his superior-in participative discussion. These figures and tendencies seem even more valid in British industry.
Suggestion schemes and 'open-door' policies
Formal upward communication is often the minimum required by the system in operation. The resulting amount and nature of informal communication can be a direct reflection of the unfulfilled needs, desires, or aims of the people involved. By using informal communication, the subordinate can:
(1) initiate the communication; (2)
(3)
control the process; seek the best channel.
All formal feedback methods can be tested by these three parameters. Meetings usually fail on all three counts, while suggestion schemes are somewhat better in that the first factor is met. Personal contact is often the best method but only when the superior in sensitive to the view of others. Similar faults in suggestion schemes, opinion polls, etc., have been documented by other writers, and certainly 'failure' rates have been as high as 90 per cent, whereas the Socony Mobile Company computed an 800 per cent cash return on their suggestion scheme, other firms have put forward the following disadvantages.
(a) Many companies pay on all suggestions to avoid
disappointment.
(b) Many suggestions would have come without the
scheme.
Suggestion schemes and 'open-door' policies
Formal upward communication is often the minimum required by the system in operation. The resulting amount and nature of informal communication can be a direct reflection of the unfulfilled needs, desires, or aims of the people involved. By using informal communication, the subordinate can:
(1) initiate the communication; (2)
(3)
control the process; seek the best channel.
All formal feedback methods can be tested by these three parameters. Meetings usually fail on all three counts, while suggestion schemes are somewhat better in that the first factor is met. Personal contact is often the best method but only when the superior in sensitive to the view of others. Similar faults in suggestion schemes, opinion polls, etc., have been documented by other writers, and certainly 'failure' rates have been as high as 90 per cent, whereas the Socony Mobile Company computed an 800 per cent cash return on their suggestion scheme, other firms have put forward the following disadvantages.
(a) Many companies pay on all suggestions to avoid
disappointment.
(b) Many suggestions would have come without the
scheme.
Criticism has a negative effect on target achievement.
(a) Criticism has a negative effect on target achievement. (b) Praise had no effect.
(c) Performance improved as targets became clearer,
more specific, and realistic.
(d) Performance iIpproved with more frequent feedback.
(e) Mutual target setting improved performance.
(t) Performance interviews should be separate from salary
and promotion decisions.
Morale and acceptance of pelformance appraisals also improved in the same manner. In general these authors suggest that the interview should at~empt to decrease the sense of threat to the subordinate's self-esteem and so reduce his defensive behviour.
It is perhaps the unce11ainty about the way in which performance is assessed which caus~s most problems in appraisal interviews. Goal-oriented assessments, produce more agreement, satisfaction, feelings of adequacy, less hostility, and more feelings of responsibility than traitoriented assessments for both subordinate and superior personnel. Perhaps the greatest reward from establishing objective as opposed to subjective appraisals is that interpersonal relations can be improved and greater commitment of the subordinate to his section's objectives is possible.
A study of 567 American companies found a growth in the practice of performance appraisal. Fifty per cent of the firms had, however, eventually dropped the system at executive level because they felt it was too time consuming. Furthermore, it is interesting to note in the light of the foregoing research on participation that over
(c) Performance improved as targets became clearer,
more specific, and realistic.
(d) Performance iIpproved with more frequent feedback.
(e) Mutual target setting improved performance.
(t) Performance interviews should be separate from salary
and promotion decisions.
Morale and acceptance of pelformance appraisals also improved in the same manner. In general these authors suggest that the interview should at~empt to decrease the sense of threat to the subordinate's self-esteem and so reduce his defensive behviour.
It is perhaps the unce11ainty about the way in which performance is assessed which caus~s most problems in appraisal interviews. Goal-oriented assessments, produce more agreement, satisfaction, feelings of adequacy, less hostility, and more feelings of responsibility than traitoriented assessments for both subordinate and superior personnel. Perhaps the greatest reward from establishing objective as opposed to subjective appraisals is that interpersonal relations can be improved and greater commitment of the subordinate to his section's objectives is possible.
A study of 567 American companies found a growth in the practice of performance appraisal. Fifty per cent of the firms had, however, eventually dropped the system at executive level because they felt it was too time consuming. Furthermore, it is interesting to note in the light of the foregoing research on participation that over
Professor Maier suggests that the lack of agreement he found between
of the dialogue is of paramount importance, such that both superior and subordinate should play their roles with equal
openness and frankn~ss, establishing clear targets of performance to which both superior and subordinate are committed. Unfortunately for advocates of annual appraisals, many outstanding men are notably deficient in tact. In a few cases performance reviews stimulate sadistic desires to strip subordinates bare for other than altruistic reasons. Similar beliefs have led to the recommendation or separation of performance and reward, i.e. to look upon appraisal as a tool for career development with the superior committed to follow up failings exposed in the process, by giving time or training to correct the weakness.
Not only can subordinates experience difficult in being critical of their more influential superiors but also superiors can be reluctant to criticize as the following quote from a manager to whom I talked indicates: 'Some of my subordinates may complain about some people all the year round but when it comes to appraisal time they
tend to say. "Oh, they're a lot better recently". They are very reluctant to criticize or act the headmaster.'
Professor Maier suggests that the lack of agreement he found between superior-subordinate pairs over job details questions the validity of appraisal and the willingness of the subordinate to accept this system. Perhaps, significantly, none of the companies he studied used 'participative appraisals.
Meyer et ai., Kay et ai., and French et al. confirm
this belief. in an extended study of ninety-two superiorsubordinate pairs at a general electlic plant the authors found:
openness and frankn~ss, establishing clear targets of performance to which both superior and subordinate are committed. Unfortunately for advocates of annual appraisals, many outstanding men are notably deficient in tact. In a few cases performance reviews stimulate sadistic desires to strip subordinates bare for other than altruistic reasons. Similar beliefs have led to the recommendation or separation of performance and reward, i.e. to look upon appraisal as a tool for career development with the superior committed to follow up failings exposed in the process, by giving time or training to correct the weakness.
Not only can subordinates experience difficult in being critical of their more influential superiors but also superiors can be reluctant to criticize as the following quote from a manager to whom I talked indicates: 'Some of my subordinates may complain about some people all the year round but when it comes to appraisal time they
tend to say. "Oh, they're a lot better recently". They are very reluctant to criticize or act the headmaster.'
Professor Maier suggests that the lack of agreement he found between superior-subordinate pairs over job details questions the validity of appraisal and the willingness of the subordinate to accept this system. Perhaps, significantly, none of the companies he studied used 'participative appraisals.
Meyer et ai., Kay et ai., and French et al. confirm
this belief. in an extended study of ninety-two superiorsubordinate pairs at a general electlic plant the authors found:
In the early days benefits claimed for the system were:
As .this sort of participation should make the subordinate feel closer to the decision-making point, any inadequacies in the authority and responsibilities of the superior may be highlighted in the eyes of the subordinate. Thus one type of organizational change may precipitate another. One of the advantages of feedback at all levels is that weak points may be brought into clearer perspective and corrective action taken.
Performance appraisals
One of the earliest recorded applications of formal appraisals was in the Wei DynastY where the imperial rater of the emperor appraised the performance of the members of the official family. American indusu)' started taking up fOlmal appraisals before Wodd War I, but the system is still little used in Britain.
In the early days benefits claimed for the system were:
(a) The identification of and concentration upon the most
important areas.
(b) Subsequent appraisals identified weak areas and
allowed corrections to be attempted.
(c) A record of the conclusions reached was permanently
on paper.
(d) Face-to-face communications, increased speed, and
interaction.
(e) The motivation of managers through relating reward
to performance.
More recently others have highlighted some
drawbacks of appraisal systems in common use. These organizational theorists suggest that the power relationship
Performance appraisals
One of the earliest recorded applications of formal appraisals was in the Wei DynastY where the imperial rater of the emperor appraised the performance of the members of the official family. American indusu)' started taking up fOlmal appraisals before Wodd War I, but the system is still little used in Britain.
In the early days benefits claimed for the system were:
(a) The identification of and concentration upon the most
important areas.
(b) Subsequent appraisals identified weak areas and
allowed corrections to be attempted.
(c) A record of the conclusions reached was permanently
on paper.
(d) Face-to-face communications, increased speed, and
interaction.
(e) The motivation of managers through relating reward
to performance.
More recently others have highlighted some
drawbacks of appraisal systems in common use. These organizational theorists suggest that the power relationship
The problem may be one of managerial style.
distrust of the immediate superior. As might be expected therefore, the firm with the most formalized systemperformance appraisal with the subordinate present-had the highest trust scores of all the fmns. Furthermore, only in this firm did all the subordinates believe that their superior was the person most in touch with their problems-an indication that they felt the feedback system to be working both ways.
However, even with this system there is some reluctance on behalf of the superiors to praise their subordinates. As one manager expressed it: 'I really do not like doing his...he has got the same experience, as good if not better qualifications, same background and age more or less-why should 1 playa little god.'
The problem may be one of managerial style. When the superior believes that the aims of the organization and the subordinate can meet, he can more easily take the step of allowing the subordinate to take a major part in deciding what should constitute good performance and what bad. If the superior agrees with his subordinate's ideas, then the junior manager will feel more committed. to seeipg that the outcome of his proposals are successfulthat his targets are met. This method of performance appraisal can reduce a lot of the 'threat' felt during appraisal interviews, as one of the electronics managers discovered:
I had one of my 'difficult' men come with me on someone else's appraisal to show him the boss's view. Then I go him to fill in his owri appraisal form and compare it with mine. It worked very well-I'm sure it helped him realize his own weaknesses without my having to point them out. It is a great value ~o communication-with a frank talk-may be clear the aIr. I quite enjoy it.
However, even with this system there is some reluctance on behalf of the superiors to praise their subordinates. As one manager expressed it: 'I really do not like doing his...he has got the same experience, as good if not better qualifications, same background and age more or less-why should 1 playa little god.'
The problem may be one of managerial style. When the superior believes that the aims of the organization and the subordinate can meet, he can more easily take the step of allowing the subordinate to take a major part in deciding what should constitute good performance and what bad. If the superior agrees with his subordinate's ideas, then the junior manager will feel more committed. to seeipg that the outcome of his proposals are successfulthat his targets are met. This method of performance appraisal can reduce a lot of the 'threat' felt during appraisal interviews, as one of the electronics managers discovered:
I had one of my 'difficult' men come with me on someone else's appraisal to show him the boss's view. Then I go him to fill in his owri appraisal form and compare it with mine. It worked very well-I'm sure it helped him realize his own weaknesses without my having to point them out. It is a great value ~o communication-with a frank talk-may be clear the aIr. I quite enjoy it.
which they can be measured. Many personnel managers.
which they can be measured. Many personnel managers.
would agree with this and point out that performance feedback based on subjective judgments is often more a
minor of the appraiser than the appraisee as the following
Anny ~xample shows: 'This officer is keenly analytical and his highly developed mentality could best be used in the research and development field. He lacks common sense.
The supporters of feedback through performance appraisal reject the approach typified by the following manager involved in my study: If subordinates are good men, they will make an objective judgment of their own
progress-they don't need me to tell them. We all work in the basis here that no news is good news.'
How much honest feedback could a boss expect to '
this sort of opening remark: 'I want you to tell me candidly what's wrong with our section-even if it means losing your job!' On a somewhat grander scale one
wonders how much honest criticism absolute dictators like Hitler received from their advisors, or kings, like Henry vm receive from their wives.
A general lack of feedback seems quite common in Britain. A lack of cost infOlmation was placed third in a list of problems restricting productivity during the poll of works managers mentioned earlier, and in only two of the seven electronics firms was time set aside at least annually for superior-subordinate pairs to discuss in some detail the problems involved in the .subordinate' s job.
Without any degree of feedback on his performance, the subordinate will find it difficult to control or conect his behaviour. When performance is thought to be an important factor in promotions and salary increases, this 'non-feedback' may lead to feelings of insecurity and
would agree with this and point out that performance feedback based on subjective judgments is often more a
minor of the appraiser than the appraisee as the following
Anny ~xample shows: 'This officer is keenly analytical and his highly developed mentality could best be used in the research and development field. He lacks common sense.
The supporters of feedback through performance appraisal reject the approach typified by the following manager involved in my study: If subordinates are good men, they will make an objective judgment of their own
progress-they don't need me to tell them. We all work in the basis here that no news is good news.'
How much honest feedback could a boss expect to '
this sort of opening remark: 'I want you to tell me candidly what's wrong with our section-even if it means losing your job!' On a somewhat grander scale one
wonders how much honest criticism absolute dictators like Hitler received from their advisors, or kings, like Henry vm receive from their wives.
A general lack of feedback seems quite common in Britain. A lack of cost infOlmation was placed third in a list of problems restricting productivity during the poll of works managers mentioned earlier, and in only two of the seven electronics firms was time set aside at least annually for superior-subordinate pairs to discuss in some detail the problems involved in the .subordinate' s job.
Without any degree of feedback on his performance, the subordinate will find it difficult to control or conect his behaviour. When performance is thought to be an important factor in promotions and salary increases, this 'non-feedback' may lead to feelings of insecurity and
Thursday, January 17, 2008
The technIcal term for the vocal melody and the punctuation
space in the business setting, the intimate zone is usually intentionally penetrated only for fleeting periods of time unless artificially enforced by close seating as in a conference setting or a theatre.
The second zone is personal space, which ranges from arm's length to 3 to 4 feet from the body. While friends who feel ease with each other will share this space, strangers would probably feel some discomfort in this zone. The social zone extends from about 4 to 8 feet from the body and is the area in w~ich most conduct ordinary business and social activity. In supervisorsubordinate relationships, anything closer than the social zone requires a special situation.
The public zone extends 8 to 10 feet from the body and is the area over which individuals exert little personal control. A person who moves to this zone may be signalling a lack of interes~ in the speaker or an unwillingness to become personal or social. Since distractions are a distinct possibility in this zone, listening is especially difficult for two people. It is better for two people to communicate in the social zone unless one of the participants is uneasy. .
Paralanguage .
The technIcal term for the vocal melody and the punctuation a I?erson uses to change, emphasis, or reverse the meaning of words is paralinguistics or paralanguage. Paralanguage includes stress, pitch, rate, loudness, timber, inflection, rhyme, and enunciation-all the vocal nuances that accompany the verbal dimension of speech. Moreover, vocalizations that do not qualify as words, for example, laughing, crying, sighing, yawning, coughing, whispering, and the like, are also parts of paralanguage. Even silences, pauses, and hesitations can fall into this category.
The second zone is personal space, which ranges from arm's length to 3 to 4 feet from the body. While friends who feel ease with each other will share this space, strangers would probably feel some discomfort in this zone. The social zone extends from about 4 to 8 feet from the body and is the area in w~ich most conduct ordinary business and social activity. In supervisorsubordinate relationships, anything closer than the social zone requires a special situation.
The public zone extends 8 to 10 feet from the body and is the area over which individuals exert little personal control. A person who moves to this zone may be signalling a lack of interes~ in the speaker or an unwillingness to become personal or social. Since distractions are a distinct possibility in this zone, listening is especially difficult for two people. It is better for two people to communicate in the social zone unless one of the participants is uneasy. .
Paralanguage .
The technIcal term for the vocal melody and the punctuation a I?erson uses to change, emphasis, or reverse the meaning of words is paralinguistics or paralanguage. Paralanguage includes stress, pitch, rate, loudness, timber, inflection, rhyme, and enunciation-all the vocal nuances that accompany the verbal dimension of speech. Moreover, vocalizations that do not qualify as words, for example, laughing, crying, sighing, yawning, coughing, whispering, and the like, are also parts of paralanguage. Even silences, pauses, and hesitations can fall into this category.
Semi-fixed space includes the movable objects such as tables and chairs and. their arrangement.
and rooms. the pennanent mangement of buildings and, in turn, rooms considerably influences the communication environment. First, it reduce the degree to which peopl~ may vary their space to con-espond to their attitude. For instance person may feel close to another and desire to move physically closer, however, if the chairs and tables are fixed, such a move would not be possible.
Semi-fixed space includes the movable objects such as tables and chairs and. their arrangement. A flexible mangement of furniture allows managers to observe how people an-ange their environment and to listen for the messages being conveyed by the arrangement. For instance, when people are at ease with one another, they may move their chairs away from the table so it does not separate them. Research has found that people at right angles to each other produced six times as many conversations as face-to-face situations across a 36-inch span of table and twice as many as the side-by-side arrangement. Thus, two people seated at right angles to one another may be more predisposed to communication that others.
Informal space, perhaps most significant when considering managefial listening, encompasses the distances maintained in encounters with others. Infonnal space is divided into four distinct distances: intimate, personal, social, and public.
While these zones vary from one culture or group to another, tbis discussion will be in telms of the American culture. The first zone, intimate, involves fewer than 18 inches of space between two people. Those who feel close, safe, and secure with one another share this zone. A pat on the ,back or a hand on the shoulder occurs in this
Semi-fixed space includes the movable objects such as tables and chairs and. their arrangement. A flexible mangement of furniture allows managers to observe how people an-ange their environment and to listen for the messages being conveyed by the arrangement. For instance, when people are at ease with one another, they may move their chairs away from the table so it does not separate them. Research has found that people at right angles to each other produced six times as many conversations as face-to-face situations across a 36-inch span of table and twice as many as the side-by-side arrangement. Thus, two people seated at right angles to one another may be more predisposed to communication that others.
Informal space, perhaps most significant when considering managefial listening, encompasses the distances maintained in encounters with others. Infonnal space is divided into four distinct distances: intimate, personal, social, and public.
While these zones vary from one culture or group to another, tbis discussion will be in telms of the American culture. The first zone, intimate, involves fewer than 18 inches of space between two people. Those who feel close, safe, and secure with one another share this zone. A pat on the ,back or a hand on the shoulder occurs in this
People also use gestures to show a caring attitude
People also use g~stures to show a caring attitude. Stroking or patting shoulders, arms, hands, heads, or cheeks, and slapping backs are examples of behaviours generally intended to convey good feeling and regard. These gestures relate so closely with caring that people in stress can often be seen giving such attention to themselves.
The final type of gesture to be discussed indicates either a defensive or an offensive attitude. Movements such as hand rubbing, hand clutching, face rubbing, lip pulling, or cuticle picking often reflect a perceived threat. Other defensive gestures that characterize protection include placing a hand to the throat, neck, head, or mouth. Offensive gestures may be clenched fists, a rapid forward movement of the arm, or a pushing motion.
Of course, it is important to listen to the verbal message as well as the gestures of the speaker. However, just as some people speak in a monotone, it is possible that some will use no gestures to co~plement the verbal message. Thus, managers should observe all the different components of non-verbal communications.
Spatial messages
Edward Hall coined the word" proxemics" for the study of ways in which space, distance, and territory are components of human communication. Skill in reading proxemics can be valuable for managers listening to others in an orgariization. Through proxemics, one can determine
. how friendly, worried, or isolated another feels.
Hall identifies three types of space: feature fixed,
semi-fixed feature, and informal. Feature-fixed space is the
non-moving and clearly defmed space found' in buildings
The final type of gesture to be discussed indicates either a defensive or an offensive attitude. Movements such as hand rubbing, hand clutching, face rubbing, lip pulling, or cuticle picking often reflect a perceived threat. Other defensive gestures that characterize protection include placing a hand to the throat, neck, head, or mouth. Offensive gestures may be clenched fists, a rapid forward movement of the arm, or a pushing motion.
Of course, it is important to listen to the verbal message as well as the gestures of the speaker. However, just as some people speak in a monotone, it is possible that some will use no gestures to co~plement the verbal message. Thus, managers should observe all the different components of non-verbal communications.
Spatial messages
Edward Hall coined the word" proxemics" for the study of ways in which space, distance, and territory are components of human communication. Skill in reading proxemics can be valuable for managers listening to others in an orgariization. Through proxemics, one can determine
. how friendly, worried, or isolated another feels.
Hall identifies three types of space: feature fixed,
semi-fixed feature, and informal. Feature-fixed space is the
non-moving and clearly defmed space found' in buildings
Gestures can be used to emphasize or demonstrate a point,
When involved in cross-cultural exchanges, managers are advised to learn some of the gestural vocabulary of the other cultural group.
Gestures can be used to emphasize or demonstrate a point, to regulate a conversation, to present a caring attitude, or [0 indicate a defensive or offensive orientation. In fact, many use gestures to emphasize key words in a message even as they use punctuation or underscoring in written statements. For example, "until the people upstairs The manager watching for these gestures finds it is easier to listen for the important points.
Some gestures look like what they demonstrate, sucl;1 as the size or shape of an object. Such gestures are an attempt to draw a picture of an object, but others are more abstract. For instance, the upraised palms and shrugge4 shoulders gesture of "Who knows?" is abstract, but still easy to understand
Speakers also use gestures to regulate the flow of the communication. When a person waves his hand upward or inward or cups his hand over the ear, it may be an indication to speak louder. A person can hold another speaker off by holding the other's arm or hand while making a point. Someone may also point to the listener, keep his hands out in space between himself and the listener, or poke a finger into the listener's shoulder. When people want to inten-upt with .their own point, they put their hand out as if to hold the person down. When people are not ready to answer, they may step back, screw their eyes closed, and scratch their heads in the hope of getting more time. An effective manager can determine the flow of the conversation by observing gestures and strategically adjusting the communication.
Gestures can be used to emphasize or demonstrate a point, to regulate a conversation, to present a caring attitude, or [0 indicate a defensive or offensive orientation. In fact, many use gestures to emphasize key words in a message even as they use punctuation or underscoring in written statements. For example, "until the people upstairs The manager watching for these gestures finds it is easier to listen for the important points.
Some gestures look like what they demonstrate, sucl;1 as the size or shape of an object. Such gestures are an attempt to draw a picture of an object, but others are more abstract. For instance, the upraised palms and shrugge4 shoulders gesture of "Who knows?" is abstract, but still easy to understand
Speakers also use gestures to regulate the flow of the communication. When a person waves his hand upward or inward or cups his hand over the ear, it may be an indication to speak louder. A person can hold another speaker off by holding the other's arm or hand while making a point. Someone may also point to the listener, keep his hands out in space between himself and the listener, or poke a finger into the listener's shoulder. When people want to inten-upt with .their own point, they put their hand out as if to hold the person down. When people are not ready to answer, they may step back, screw their eyes closed, and scratch their heads in the hope of getting more time. An effective manager can determine the flow of the conversation by observing gestures and strategically adjusting the communication.
Gestures are another way a sender can complement the verbal communication and enable a receiver to understand the message better
Third, crossed arms and legs generally characterize one who feels wary, distant, angry, or in some way uncomfortable. This posture may suggest that the body is closed off and protected. Of course, an isolated arm or leg cross alone is not enough evidence to judge closedness, because people have other reasons. for crossing or uncrossing limbs such as a room's temperature or the need to rest a leg. It is the total posture of the body within a context that helps the manager to determine the openness or closedness of an individual.
Thus, while one can read no concrete messages from posture, the observant and astute manager is better able to listen to the total message if he analyzes the posture of those involved in the communication.
Gestures
Gestures are another way a sender can complement the verbal communication and enable a receiver to understand the message better. When we see a person cupping her hands, pounding on her desk, waving her arms through the air, or pointing a finger while speaking on the phone, we are able to read the message she is sending. An interesting test of the importance of hands to speech requires a person to carry on a conversation while sitting on her hands. An exaggerated use of shoulder and head movement will result as a compensation for the loss of manual gestures.
You should remember that gestures frequently have different meanings in different cultures. The gestures discussed in this chapter are ones that the average American might easily recognize. At the sa1!le time, in another culture, the same gestures might have no meaning or one entiI'ely different from that in the Amelican culture.
Thus, while one can read no concrete messages from posture, the observant and astute manager is better able to listen to the total message if he analyzes the posture of those involved in the communication.
Gestures
Gestures are another way a sender can complement the verbal communication and enable a receiver to understand the message better. When we see a person cupping her hands, pounding on her desk, waving her arms through the air, or pointing a finger while speaking on the phone, we are able to read the message she is sending. An interesting test of the importance of hands to speech requires a person to carry on a conversation while sitting on her hands. An exaggerated use of shoulder and head movement will result as a compensation for the loss of manual gestures.
You should remember that gestures frequently have different meanings in different cultures. The gestures discussed in this chapter are ones that the average American might easily recognize. At the sa1!le time, in another culture, the same gestures might have no meaning or one entiI'ely different from that in the Amelican culture.
Most people are probably less accustomed to masking their posture than their facial expressions
They make it possible to express pleasure, displeasure, contempt, or doubt. Thus, pulling down the comers of the mouth while furrowing the forehead can signal doubt. Anger may be displayed with an open ~quare mouth or by lips pressed tightly together, accompanied by brows drawn together.
Posture
Most people are probably less accustomed to masking their posture than their facial expressions; thus, posture can serve as a reliable source of information for the manager. The way a person walks, stands, or sits can reveal a wealth of valuable information. Thus, a person can face one person, stand over another, or slump in front of or "give the shoulder" to another. It is possible to lean forward or recline backward, to lean to the right or the left, to sit erect, or to slouch. A person can open .up in a sprawling, relaxed pose or be defensive with closed arms and legs locked in tight
What does all this mean? No specific, irrevocable rules exist, but some general principle~' apply. First, a person is drawn toward something he or she likes. When a person leans toward a manager in conversation, it is often safe to aSsume that the person likes the manager. At the same time, since leaning forward may also indicate an aggressive attitude, the context shquld be considered.
Second, people position themselves in alignment with others. Frequently, the degree of mutual involvement con'esponds to the degree that two people mutually align their heads, shoulders, and hips. People in conversation will often make subtle postural adjustments to one another to create their own preferred degree of alignment.
Posture
Most people are probably less accustomed to masking their posture than their facial expressions; thus, posture can serve as a reliable source of information for the manager. The way a person walks, stands, or sits can reveal a wealth of valuable information. Thus, a person can face one person, stand over another, or slump in front of or "give the shoulder" to another. It is possible to lean forward or recline backward, to lean to the right or the left, to sit erect, or to slouch. A person can open .up in a sprawling, relaxed pose or be defensive with closed arms and legs locked in tight
What does all this mean? No specific, irrevocable rules exist, but some general principle~' apply. First, a person is drawn toward something he or she likes. When a person leans toward a manager in conversation, it is often safe to aSsume that the person likes the manager. At the same time, since leaning forward may also indicate an aggressive attitude, the context shquld be considered.
Second, people position themselves in alignment with others. Frequently, the degree of mutual involvement con'esponds to the degree that two people mutually align their heads, shoulders, and hips. People in conversation will often make subtle postural adjustments to one another to create their own preferred degree of alignment.
Listening to non-verbal messages
Listening to non-verbal messages
People listen with their eyes as well as their ears. The renowned communication researcher Mehrabian found that..
only 7 per cent of a message's effect is carried by words; listeners receive the other 93 per cent through non-verbal means. After conducting extensive research, Bird-whistell suggested that spoken words account for no more than 30 to 55 per cent of all social interaction. Thus, any nonverbal sources of information available to listeners are worth reviewing. Non-verbal communication can be divided into facial expressions, postures, gestures, and spatial messages.
Facial expressions
Facial expression is probably the most universal form of human communication. A smile or frown is known around the world. The wide array of facial expressions used by such communication "experts" as Charlie Chaplin, Buster Keaton, and Jack Benny shows how diverse and dynamic this form of communication can be. Just as Charlie Chaplin developed different masks for the silent movies. adults know the right expression for most communication circumstances. It is relatively easy to turn on and off such facial expressions as an-gel', disapproval, happiness, and fatigue. For this reason, the face is the most flexible .source of non-verbal communication as well as the best at misrepresentation. A manager needs to be aware of the vast amount of information he can read from the face; however, he must be wary. of the possibility that it can mask feelings or intent.
Usually, the eyes provide the. fIrst facial signal that a
person notic~s. The expressions "shifty-eyed" or "evil
eyed" as. descriptions of overall personality probably
People listen with their eyes as well as their ears. The renowned communication researcher Mehrabian found that..
only 7 per cent of a message's effect is carried by words; listeners receive the other 93 per cent through non-verbal means. After conducting extensive research, Bird-whistell suggested that spoken words account for no more than 30 to 55 per cent of all social interaction. Thus, any nonverbal sources of information available to listeners are worth reviewing. Non-verbal communication can be divided into facial expressions, postures, gestures, and spatial messages.
Facial expressions
Facial expression is probably the most universal form of human communication. A smile or frown is known around the world. The wide array of facial expressions used by such communication "experts" as Charlie Chaplin, Buster Keaton, and Jack Benny shows how diverse and dynamic this form of communication can be. Just as Charlie Chaplin developed different masks for the silent movies. adults know the right expression for most communication circumstances. It is relatively easy to turn on and off such facial expressions as an-gel', disapproval, happiness, and fatigue. For this reason, the face is the most flexible .source of non-verbal communication as well as the best at misrepresentation. A manager needs to be aware of the vast amount of information he can read from the face; however, he must be wary. of the possibility that it can mask feelings or intent.
Usually, the eyes provide the. fIrst facial signal that a
person notic~s. The expressions "shifty-eyed" or "evil
eyed" as. descriptions of overall personality probably
What specific part is hard to get? (secondary)
Do you think you'll be able to have the analysis done by Wednesday? (primary)
That shouldn't be any problem if everything goes right for a change. ,
What would you be afraid of going wrong? (secondary)
Employee: The accounting information is hard to get
sometimes.
Employee:
Manager:
Manager: What specific part is hard to get? (secondary)
Notice that each secondary question seeks further information on the preceding answer. Managers use the secondary question when they feel that they have not obtained sufficient information through the primary ones.
The third classification involves neutral versus directed questions. While a neutral question seeks information without attempting to lead the speaker to answer in a cenain way, the directed question seeks to lead the speaker to a response the inquirer desires.. A directed 'question, often referred to as a leading question, tries to pull the answer in a predetermined direction. Directed questions' open with such phrases as "Doesn't it seem logical that...," or "Wouldn't you agree that ...," or
"Wouldn't you say Directed questions may be used to
obtain confirmation or clarification on one specific point,. whereas the neutral questions will obtain a more general response.
The use of an appropriate question adds clarity to communication because of the active two-way process that develops. Listening is clearly not a passive activity; rather, it requires the active involvement of the manager through the use of questions and other means.
That shouldn't be any problem if everything goes right for a change. ,
What would you be afraid of going wrong? (secondary)
Employee: The accounting information is hard to get
sometimes.
Employee:
Manager:
Manager: What specific part is hard to get? (secondary)
Notice that each secondary question seeks further information on the preceding answer. Managers use the secondary question when they feel that they have not obtained sufficient information through the primary ones.
The third classification involves neutral versus directed questions. While a neutral question seeks information without attempting to lead the speaker to answer in a cenain way, the directed question seeks to lead the speaker to a response the inquirer desires.. A directed 'question, often referred to as a leading question, tries to pull the answer in a predetermined direction. Directed questions' open with such phrases as "Doesn't it seem logical that...," or "Wouldn't you agree that ...," or
"Wouldn't you say Directed questions may be used to
obtain confirmation or clarification on one specific point,. whereas the neutral questions will obtain a more general response.
The use of an appropriate question adds clarity to communication because of the active two-way process that develops. Listening is clearly not a passive activity; rather, it requires the active involvement of the manager through the use of questions and other means.
disorderly description has made it difficult to listen
Communication Management
this disorderly description has made it difficult to listen, so the manager now needs to ask questions for both clarity and completeness. of information. The following questions posed by the manager show the difference between open and closed questions.
What do you think are the major causes of the problem? (open)
Tell me more about it? (open) .
Did you check the steam gauge? (closed)
Where do you think we should go from here? (open)
Would it be a good idea to wait until tomoITow? (closed)
While open questions may generate additional information, they also allow possible digression. Closed questions are more direct and help one to focus on the problem. Neverthele.ss, the lack of opennells may cause valuable information to be omitted since the answer is so nan-ow. Managers must use strategic analysis to determine the best choice of questioning style in each case.
Two other options open to managers are primary and secondary questions. A primary question is the first question that seeks clarification or more complete information on a topic. A manager may choose to follow up with a secondary question that probes to obtain still more specific information after the primary question has been answered. A secondary question is not merely an additional question; it seeks to get at a deeper level of information than the first or primary level. The following
dialogue shows the strategic use of primary and secondary. questioning.
this disorderly description has made it difficult to listen, so the manager now needs to ask questions for both clarity and completeness. of information. The following questions posed by the manager show the difference between open and closed questions.
What do you think are the major causes of the problem? (open)
Tell me more about it? (open) .
Did you check the steam gauge? (closed)
Where do you think we should go from here? (open)
Would it be a good idea to wait until tomoITow? (closed)
While open questions may generate additional information, they also allow possible digression. Closed questions are more direct and help one to focus on the problem. Neverthele.ss, the lack of opennells may cause valuable information to be omitted since the answer is so nan-ow. Managers must use strategic analysis to determine the best choice of questioning style in each case.
Two other options open to managers are primary and secondary questions. A primary question is the first question that seeks clarification or more complete information on a topic. A manager may choose to follow up with a secondary question that probes to obtain still more specific information after the primary question has been answered. A secondary question is not merely an additional question; it seeks to get at a deeper level of information than the first or primary level. The following
dialogue shows the strategic use of primary and secondary. questioning.
Questioning for improved interactive listening
Questioning for improved interactive listening
In a variety of situations, the skilful use of questions adds immensely to a manager's ability to communicate. In fact, this book recommends several areas when questioning techniques are appropriate: listening, interviewing, conflict resolution, and coaching. Questions are important because they promote the two-way process of communication. Without the use of questions, feedback and mutual understanding are severely curbed.
Ask questions when the meaning of a message is either unclear or incomplete. When key words, phrases, or concepts are vague or when inconsistencies or contradictions appear, questions help to develop clarity. Listeners are not the only ones to benefit from questions, however; questions may also help a speaker to clarify his thoughts. In fact, a speaker might not be aware of an omission or distortion in a message until asked a question. When questioned, the speaker may be forced to reanalyze his own communication to the listener's benefit.
i A manager 'must strategically determine the most appropriate questions for different situations to ensure mutual understanding. Three classifications of questions are-appropriate to this discussion: open-closed; primarysecondary; neutral-directed.
The phrasing of an open-ended question gives the respondent an open choice of possible answers. At the other end of/ the spectrum is the closed question, which permits a n81TOW range of possible answers. An example illustrates this point. A frustrated employee has just described to his manager a major problem with a new project. In his agitation, the employee jumped from one
point to another while descri~ing the problem. Naturally,
In a variety of situations, the skilful use of questions adds immensely to a manager's ability to communicate. In fact, this book recommends several areas when questioning techniques are appropriate: listening, interviewing, conflict resolution, and coaching. Questions are important because they promote the two-way process of communication. Without the use of questions, feedback and mutual understanding are severely curbed.
Ask questions when the meaning of a message is either unclear or incomplete. When key words, phrases, or concepts are vague or when inconsistencies or contradictions appear, questions help to develop clarity. Listeners are not the only ones to benefit from questions, however; questions may also help a speaker to clarify his thoughts. In fact, a speaker might not be aware of an omission or distortion in a message until asked a question. When questioned, the speaker may be forced to reanalyze his own communication to the listener's benefit.
i A manager 'must strategically determine the most appropriate questions for different situations to ensure mutual understanding. Three classifications of questions are-appropriate to this discussion: open-closed; primarysecondary; neutral-directed.
The phrasing of an open-ended question gives the respondent an open choice of possible answers. At the other end of/ the spectrum is the closed question, which permits a n81TOW range of possible answers. An example illustrates this point. A frustrated employee has just described to his manager a major problem with a new project. In his agitation, the employee jumped from one
point to another while descri~ing the problem. Naturally,
jot down key words and phrases in outline form using abbreviations when possible.
Instead, jot down key words and phrases in outline form using abbreviations when possible.
Mnemonics may be used when jotting down abbreviated notes. One mnemonic device is the acronym, a combination of letters, each of which is the first letter of a grQuP of words essential to the message. For instance, suppose that a person is presenting his main objection to taking additional training in computer programming. The objection may stem from the cost, the individual's ability, and the time involved. The mnemonic CAT can be used to record these main ideas whenever the speaker refers to them. In this way, the listener records the main thoughts without becoming burdened by note taking. Later, the listener can rewrite the notes in more detail if an accurate record is needed. This rewriting has the added advantage of acting as a review of the major themes in the message.
A final thought on notes. The listener who takes notes indicates a sincere interest in both the message and the speaker. Notes require involvement, so the speaker will have a greater degree of confidence that listeners are paying attention to the message. The fact that it is important to demonstrate effective listening is discussed in more detail later.
Each of these techniques-identifying the main points, outlining. Summarizing, visualizing, personalizing, and note taking - is useful in either active or interactive listening. However, the techniques are especially critical in situations where the ability to ask questions and observe non-verbal message is limited.. The ideal is to ask questions of the speaker for clarity without using them to replace the five techniques just discussed.
Mnemonics may be used when jotting down abbreviated notes. One mnemonic device is the acronym, a combination of letters, each of which is the first letter of a grQuP of words essential to the message. For instance, suppose that a person is presenting his main objection to taking additional training in computer programming. The objection may stem from the cost, the individual's ability, and the time involved. The mnemonic CAT can be used to record these main ideas whenever the speaker refers to them. In this way, the listener records the main thoughts without becoming burdened by note taking. Later, the listener can rewrite the notes in more detail if an accurate record is needed. This rewriting has the added advantage of acting as a review of the major themes in the message.
A final thought on notes. The listener who takes notes indicates a sincere interest in both the message and the speaker. Notes require involvement, so the speaker will have a greater degree of confidence that listeners are paying attention to the message. The fact that it is important to demonstrate effective listening is discussed in more detail later.
Each of these techniques-identifying the main points, outlining. Summarizing, visualizing, personalizing, and note taking - is useful in either active or interactive listening. However, the techniques are especially critical in situations where the ability to ask questions and observe non-verbal message is limited.. The ideal is to ask questions of the speaker for clarity without using them to replace the five techniques just discussed.
managers find how the message personally relates to them
questions, the managers find how the message personally relates to them. Then, their incentive to listen to the message will increase as well.
Take notes
All these techniques are strengthened when the listener takes notes. College students generally do not have to be convinced of the importance of notes, but they often lose
this good habit once they have left the classroom. A
listener can easily make short notations to help visualize and personalize a message. Not only do notes provide a written record of the communication, but they can provide valuable feedback that tells the listener just how well she is listening. If the notes are not well organized with main and supporting points, the listener probably has not mentally organized the message. If a quick review indicates that no 'notes have been taken for some time, the listener may find that his or hyr attention has been wandering.
Notes benefit a listener, too, because they keep her -£!1ysically involved. We have seen that for naturally
. physically active humans, listening is a predominately mental activity. Since they are not physically active, many people get restless or impatient when listening for long periods of time. Rather than being satisfied by lighting a cigarette or playing with fmgernails, this urge for physical activity might be channelled into note taking, which keeps a person involved with the business at hand.
Of course, note taking can be a problem for those people who overdo it. Not every word needs recording, and long sentences are not necessary. In fact, the possibility exists of concentrating on the notes to the extent that major components of the message are missed.
Take notes
All these techniques are strengthened when the listener takes notes. College students generally do not have to be convinced of the importance of notes, but they often lose
this good habit once they have left the classroom. A
listener can easily make short notations to help visualize and personalize a message. Not only do notes provide a written record of the communication, but they can provide valuable feedback that tells the listener just how well she is listening. If the notes are not well organized with main and supporting points, the listener probably has not mentally organized the message. If a quick review indicates that no 'notes have been taken for some time, the listener may find that his or hyr attention has been wandering.
Notes benefit a listener, too, because they keep her -£!1ysically involved. We have seen that for naturally
. physically active humans, listening is a predominately mental activity. Since they are not physically active, many people get restless or impatient when listening for long periods of time. Rather than being satisfied by lighting a cigarette or playing with fmgernails, this urge for physical activity might be channelled into note taking, which keeps a person involved with the business at hand.
Of course, note taking can be a problem for those people who overdo it. Not every word needs recording, and long sentences are not necessary. In fact, the possibility exists of concentrating on the notes to the extent that major components of the message are missed.
Relate the message to personal experiences (Personalize)
Visualize the message
Another tactic for active listening, to put the message into a picture, will help keep the listener's mind on the message. In fact, the beauty of this tactic is that it allows one to use some of that 75 per cent of the mental capacity not required-to keep up with the message. Consequently, a person can commit more effort to listening, thus reducing the possibility of missing a major part of the message. Finally, the retention of the message improves because a picture can now be associated with it.
In the annual meeting seen earlier, a manager might imagine the 16 new sales personnel in the western region as 16 little people running from different points of a U.S. wall map to California. Absurd as the device might be, these 16 little people running across a wall map will help the manager remember the main point of the message.
Relate the message to personal experiences (Personalize)
Effective listeners are those who search a message for information that has special meaning for them. A topic is naturally more interesting and easier to concentrate on if it personally relates to the listener. In fact, those who relate the message to personal experiences ensure that the key elements of listening, willingness, and motivation are present.
The managers listening to the president in the previous example may also personalize the message by asking questions of themselves: "How will these four products affect my job?" "Will continued expansion of the electronic group affect me?" "Will those 16 new salespeople increase my work load for the western region?" "How will the stable market in the home implement group affect our division?" In answering thes~
Another tactic for active listening, to put the message into a picture, will help keep the listener's mind on the message. In fact, the beauty of this tactic is that it allows one to use some of that 75 per cent of the mental capacity not required-to keep up with the message. Consequently, a person can commit more effort to listening, thus reducing the possibility of missing a major part of the message. Finally, the retention of the message improves because a picture can now be associated with it.
In the annual meeting seen earlier, a manager might imagine the 16 new sales personnel in the western region as 16 little people running from different points of a U.S. wall map to California. Absurd as the device might be, these 16 little people running across a wall map will help the manager remember the main point of the message.
Relate the message to personal experiences (Personalize)
Effective listeners are those who search a message for information that has special meaning for them. A topic is naturally more interesting and easier to concentrate on if it personally relates to the listener. In fact, those who relate the message to personal experiences ensure that the key elements of listening, willingness, and motivation are present.
The managers listening to the president in the previous example may also personalize the message by asking questions of themselves: "How will these four products affect my job?" "Will continued expansion of the electronic group affect me?" "Will those 16 new salespeople increase my work load for the western region?" "How will the stable market in the home implement group affect our division?" In answering thes~
a speaker has some type of organization pattern that a listener may use to outline "the message.
and a stable home implement market; the remainder of the message is supponing information. Separation of main and supporting points helps the listener to retain the critical information.
Outline the message
Often, a speaker has some type of organization pattern that a listener may use to outline "the message. For instance, a speaker may Qrganize the message by pros and cons, advantages and disadvantages, likes and dislikes, similarities and differences, chronological events,or functional duties. Just as it is easier to remember the outline of a chapter rather than every word in it, it is easier to recall the outline of a spoken message rather than all the specifics.
Summarize the message
Another listening device is the summary, which can take the form of a mental picture of the main points. The summary need not contain elaborate sentences and details; in fact, simple words or sentence fragments may suffice. Summarization does not have to wait until the end of the message as it may be more efficient at major division points. The president's speech given earlier could be summarized in three phrases: (1) four new products in electronics, (2) 16 new salespeople in the western region, and (3) a stable home implement market.
The three techniques listed so far- differentiating between the main and supporting points, outlining, and summarizing-operate together for accurate listening. The effective use of a fourth technique assists in the development of the others.
Outline the message
Often, a speaker has some type of organization pattern that a listener may use to outline "the message. For instance, a speaker may Qrganize the message by pros and cons, advantages and disadvantages, likes and dislikes, similarities and differences, chronological events,or functional duties. Just as it is easier to remember the outline of a chapter rather than every word in it, it is easier to recall the outline of a spoken message rather than all the specifics.
Summarize the message
Another listening device is the summary, which can take the form of a mental picture of the main points. The summary need not contain elaborate sentences and details; in fact, simple words or sentence fragments may suffice. Summarization does not have to wait until the end of the message as it may be more efficient at major division points. The president's speech given earlier could be summarized in three phrases: (1) four new products in electronics, (2) 16 new salespeople in the western region, and (3) a stable home implement market.
The three techniques listed so far- differentiating between the main and supporting points, outlining, and summarizing-operate together for accurate listening. The effective use of a fourth technique assists in the development of the others.
Besides introducing four new products we expanded the Western Division's sales force by adding 16 high
is the non-verbal techniques that the speaker uses when giving them; she might raise her voice, speak faster, repeat key words, or use gestures. Later discussion will detail non-verbal aspects that can be invaluable when identifying the main and supporting points. In the following example, note the emphasis on main and supporting points in a speech:
The electronic division was pleased with the successful introduction of four new products in the last
'year. All four of these products sold at a better rate than projected. We were especially pleased with the temperature .sensor that sold. t4 pel'. cent above projections. This small sensor, which has many
applications and is easy to insta,J, should do as well or
)
better next year.
Besides introducing four new products we expanded the Western Division's sales force by adding 16 high
quality salespeople. These salespeople were recruited from allover the United States, and we're confident of their ability to help us expand in the w~st. They all have a thorough understanding of the proCluct and the changing
nature of our industry. .
No immediate changes are seen in the home implement division. It will be necessary to wait and see what happens with the entire housing industry. We're stable here since garage openers, intercom systems, and burglar protection devices are all holding their own. We developed a new burglar protection system that can be programmed by means of a digital device. This has been an interesting project to watch as it developed.
The main points in this example are the four new products, expansion of the Western Division's sales force,
The electronic division was pleased with the successful introduction of four new products in the last
'year. All four of these products sold at a better rate than projected. We were especially pleased with the temperature .sensor that sold. t4 pel'. cent above projections. This small sensor, which has many
applications and is easy to insta,J, should do as well or
)
better next year.
Besides introducing four new products we expanded the Western Division's sales force by adding 16 high
quality salespeople. These salespeople were recruited from allover the United States, and we're confident of their ability to help us expand in the w~st. They all have a thorough understanding of the proCluct and the changing
nature of our industry. .
No immediate changes are seen in the home implement division. It will be necessary to wait and see what happens with the entire housing industry. We're stable here since garage openers, intercom systems, and burglar protection devices are all holding their own. We developed a new burglar protection system that can be programmed by means of a digital device. This has been an interesting project to watch as it developed.
The main points in this example are the four new products, expansion of the Western Division's sales force,
Identify the main and supporting points
caught by an e~otional phrase, the internal emotional response may .overpower the content of the message. Once again, the listener should be aware of the possible emotional responses and not let them distract from the message.
Again, it is important to review and be aware of the listening objective. Without the objective in mind, a manager may ~~se casual listening when factual listening is required, or factual listening when empathetic listening would be more effective. The person who can state in one sentence the specific goal and the type of listening involved is well aware of the listening objective.
The manager who is physically and psychologically prepared to listen could use some specific techniques to improve listening. Let us look at some of them that are appropriate for active and interactive listening. The first techniques reviewed are the only possibilities available for active listening.
Techniques for active listening
One uses active listening in situations where interaction with the speaker is difficult or impossible. ~or example, a person who is sitting in a large audience or listening to a recording cannot interact. Since asking questions is generally not possible in these situations, a listener usually needs to have'"' a clear and complete understanding of the message the first time around. An active listener should implement the following techniques.
Identify the main and supporting points
A message usually has one or two main points with supporting information in the form of examples, specific figures, or descriptions. One good clue to the main points
Again, it is important to review and be aware of the listening objective. Without the objective in mind, a manager may ~~se casual listening when factual listening is required, or factual listening when empathetic listening would be more effective. The person who can state in one sentence the specific goal and the type of listening involved is well aware of the listening objective.
The manager who is physically and psychologically prepared to listen could use some specific techniques to improve listening. Let us look at some of them that are appropriate for active and interactive listening. The first techniques reviewed are the only possibilities available for active listening.
Techniques for active listening
One uses active listening in situations where interaction with the speaker is difficult or impossible. ~or example, a person who is sitting in a large audience or listening to a recording cannot interact. Since asking questions is generally not possible in these situations, a listener usually needs to have'"' a clear and complete understanding of the message the first time around. An active listener should implement the following techniques.
Identify the main and supporting points
A message usually has one or two main points with supporting information in the form of examples, specific figures, or descriptions. One good clue to the main points
"it really isn't my job," "we tried that before, and it didn't work
they would not be offended if someone asked them to wait for ,fear that important information might be missed. Of course, if time cannot be changed, it is important that the parties be aware of the baniers present and make a special effort to concentrate on the listening process.
A manager's biases may also have a drastic effect on the outcome of the communication. A manager unaware of personal bias may become selective and hear only what he wants to hear. The person may deal only with preconceived notions and even debate with the speaker on points of disagreement. For example, a manager who believes that women are unreliable may disregard any infonnation indicating that a particular woman is reliable. The fIrst step needed to control this psychological banier of bias is awareness followed by recognition of the burden it places on the speaker-listener relationship.
Detouring, the psychological barrier that causes a listener to' become distracted by a mannerism, phrase, or concept, is closely related to bias. A listener's negative bias toward a mannerism can totally distract from the content of the message. For instance, a speaker may place her hands over her mouth while speaking, or continually play with a cigarette, or look away from the listener. Such mannerisms .can distract, and one needs to recognize them as just that-distractions: Mannerisms should not get in the way of messages.
Emotional words or phrases can also trigger listener bias. Such phrases as "typical accountant." "it really isn't my job," "we tried that before, and it didn't work," or "all engineers think alike" can lead to emotional responses. The Qanger in such phrases is that they cause a listener to hear different parts of a message. When a listener is
A manager's biases may also have a drastic effect on the outcome of the communication. A manager unaware of personal bias may become selective and hear only what he wants to hear. The person may deal only with preconceived notions and even debate with the speaker on points of disagreement. For example, a manager who believes that women are unreliable may disregard any infonnation indicating that a particular woman is reliable. The fIrst step needed to control this psychological banier of bias is awareness followed by recognition of the burden it places on the speaker-listener relationship.
Detouring, the psychological barrier that causes a listener to' become distracted by a mannerism, phrase, or concept, is closely related to bias. A listener's negative bias toward a mannerism can totally distract from the content of the message. For instance, a speaker may place her hands over her mouth while speaking, or continually play with a cigarette, or look away from the listener. Such mannerisms .can distract, and one needs to recognize them as just that-distractions: Mannerisms should not get in the way of messages.
Emotional words or phrases can also trigger listener bias. Such phrases as "typical accountant." "it really isn't my job," "we tried that before, and it didn't work," or "all engineers think alike" can lead to emotional responses. The Qanger in such phrases is that they cause a listener to hear different parts of a message. When a listener is
established the level of listening
thoroughly. Also, when the goal is explicitly analyzed, it is easier to maintain the necessary motivation to reach the goal than when analysis is incomplete. As we saw earlier, motivation is often a major problem, so any technique that improves the motivational level is important.
Once she has established the level of listening, the manager must prepare herself physically and psychologically to listen. She should complet.e the following steps during the preparation state.
1. Pick the best possible place. While it is not always possible to change the place, the manager should. not
overlook better facilities when available. .
2. Pick the best possible time. As with place, it is not always possible to change the time. However, the astute manager must be careful not to eliminate more
favourable opportunities.
3. Think about personal biases that may be present.
4. Think about the physical. and psychological barriers to
listening.
5. Review the listening objectives.
A brief review of these five items shows why they are important in reducing the barriers to effective listening discussed earlier. First, selecting the best time and place helps one avoid the internal and external distractions. In addition, since time influences the psychological barriers of motivation, emotion, and willingness, the choice of time may significantly alter the outcome of the conversation..
However, is it polite to tell another that one cannot listen right at the moment? In a survey involving more than 200 different managers, the managers indicated that
Once she has established the level of listening, the manager must prepare herself physically and psychologically to listen. She should complet.e the following steps during the preparation state.
1. Pick the best possible place. While it is not always possible to change the place, the manager should. not
overlook better facilities when available. .
2. Pick the best possible time. As with place, it is not always possible to change the time. However, the astute manager must be careful not to eliminate more
favourable opportunities.
3. Think about personal biases that may be present.
4. Think about the physical. and psychological barriers to
listening.
5. Review the listening objectives.
A brief review of these five items shows why they are important in reducing the barriers to effective listening discussed earlier. First, selecting the best time and place helps one avoid the internal and external distractions. In addition, since time influences the psychological barriers of motivation, emotion, and willingness, the choice of time may significantly alter the outcome of the conversation..
However, is it polite to tell another that one cannot listen right at the moment? In a survey involving more than 200 different managers, the managers indicated that
Wednesday, January 16, 2008
When listening, the fIrst thing a manager should do is to determine the level of listening she needs to achieve.
his own frame of reference. The empathetic listener tries to get inside the other's thoughts and feelings. The listener expresses empathy when he verbally and non-verbally communicates such messages as "I follow you," "I'm with you,"or "I understand."
The empathetic level of listening is not easy to achieve because we naturally tend to advise, tell, agree, or disagree based on our own point of view. It is well worth the effort to become an empathetic listener, however. A speaker who sees that a manager is really trying to understand her meaning will trust the manager and be more willing to talk and explore problems. Empathetic listening can be such a powerful form of listening that, even when it is only partially attained, the mere attempt can be enough to open up communication.
When listening, the fIrst thing a manager should do is to determine the level of listening she needs to achieve. She can accomplish this by establishing a "listening goal," a specifIc statement of the purpose for listening. In the give-and-take of most communications, the need to adjust one's listening goal arises as the interchange develops. Conversations frequently stan with talk about the weather or other topics unrelated to the purpose of the conversation. For example, what may have stated out as a casual conversation with the general listening goal of getting suggestions for the next office social gathering may develop into a serious discussion on possible strategies for improving office performance. Knowing the listening goal permits one to adjust the strategy to the level of listening.
The act of wliting out the listening goal is valuable: it forces the listener to analyze the purpose of the listening
The empathetic level of listening is not easy to achieve because we naturally tend to advise, tell, agree, or disagree based on our own point of view. It is well worth the effort to become an empathetic listener, however. A speaker who sees that a manager is really trying to understand her meaning will trust the manager and be more willing to talk and explore problems. Empathetic listening can be such a powerful form of listening that, even when it is only partially attained, the mere attempt can be enough to open up communication.
When listening, the fIrst thing a manager should do is to determine the level of listening she needs to achieve. She can accomplish this by establishing a "listening goal," a specifIc statement of the purpose for listening. In the give-and-take of most communications, the need to adjust one's listening goal arises as the interchange develops. Conversations frequently stan with talk about the weather or other topics unrelated to the purpose of the conversation. For example, what may have stated out as a casual conversation with the general listening goal of getting suggestions for the next office social gathering may develop into a serious discussion on possible strategies for improving office performance. Knowing the listening goal permits one to adjust the strategy to the level of listening.
The act of wliting out the listening goal is valuable: it forces the listener to analyze the purpose of the listening
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