the like. Social needs are those that are satisfied only in relationship with other people. The affiliation drive-the need to associate with others-is an example of this. We have all seen a tremendous need to conform expressed by an individual at one time or another. This is an example of affIliation or social need.
Egotistical needs differ from social needs in their orientation. Even though the social needs are instrumental in gratifying egotistical needs, these needs are directed toward the maintenance or enhancement of one's ego or one's self. FulfIlling these needs makes people feel good about themselves. Among the goals of egotistical needs are to achieve, to be important, dominant, autonomous, to be "somebody." Recognition, prestige, esteem, fame, status, and reputation are among the common means for gratifying egotistical needs. For instance, people often feel like they are "somebody" when they have accomplished something for the fIrst time, even if nobody else knows about it.
How does all this relate to the manager who is trying to motivate employees to improve work performance? It suggests that a manager or supervisor can help an employee meet many of his needs. For example, the affiliation need can be met by communicating to employees that they "belong" to the work group. It means involving new employees in group projects where others listen to their views as soon as the new employees join the company. It means letting employees participate in
decisions rather than just telling them ~hat their job duties
are. It also means taking the time to visit with them about tbings important to them-family, hobbies current events-in addition to job-related activities. Verbal interaction is extremely important in the affiliation motive
Wednesday, January 23, 2008
We may analyze rewards in mlply ways
and their applicability can be questioned, fortunately the volumes of research have led to some simplified conclusions that are easy to understand and apply. The following performance model presents these results in a simplified manner and follows the advice of Terpstra"borrow from the best.' The model integrates the popular models presented by Vroom, B.F. Skinner, Locke, Herzberg, and Maslow. Rather than introduce another motivational model, we propose to provide a framework for strategic communication that managers can implement for improved motivation.
Rewards-efforts
Thorndike's law of effect, one of the only unequivocably established laws of human behaviour, simply states \hat a behaviour that results in a pleasurable outcomes tends to be repeated, whereas a behaviour that results in a nonpleasurable outcome tends not to be repeated. The value of the reward and the probability of obtaining the reward determine the amount of effort that an employee will exert on the job. The greater the reward for workers, the greater their effort. In addition, workers often do not know what the probability is of obtaining the desired reward when they perform in a certain manner. Increased probability of success leads to increased effort.
We may analyze rewards in mlply ways, but one of the more universally accepted approaches is in terms of needs; people have needs, and when these needs are satisfied as the result of some behaviour, a pleasurable or satisfying feeling-a reward-results.
Langer distinguishes three classes of needs: physical, social, and egotistical. The physical needs are for food and water, for air, temperature control, sleep, elimination, and
Rewards-efforts
Thorndike's law of effect, one of the only unequivocably established laws of human behaviour, simply states \hat a behaviour that results in a pleasurable outcomes tends to be repeated, whereas a behaviour that results in a nonpleasurable outcome tends not to be repeated. The value of the reward and the probability of obtaining the reward determine the amount of effort that an employee will exert on the job. The greater the reward for workers, the greater their effort. In addition, workers often do not know what the probability is of obtaining the desired reward when they perform in a certain manner. Increased probability of success leads to increased effort.
We may analyze rewards in mlply ways, but one of the more universally accepted approaches is in terms of needs; people have needs, and when these needs are satisfied as the result of some behaviour, a pleasurable or satisfying feeling-a reward-results.
Langer distinguishes three classes of needs: physical, social, and egotistical. The physical needs are for food and water, for air, temperature control, sleep, elimination, and
motivational theory is so difficult to implement
that applied three different between motivational concepts and concluded that there was little difference between the companies. He further concluded that the main problem was that the theories were misapplied for two possible reasons (1) the degree of expertise required to implement the theories is beyond most professional managers, and (2) the theories are not applicable to all individuals in all situations. Miller contends that many proponents of motivational theories encourage managers to fit round theories into square holes.
Because motivational theory is so difficult to implement, more and more companies are seeing that the link between motivation and performance improvement is communication. Such companies as Oneida Silversmiths,
National Can Corporation, New York Life Insurance, and. Kohler have initiated programs that stress communication as the critical element in employee motivation.
Why do these companies stress communication when considering employee motivation? Effective communication is what managers use to improve an employee's sense of self-worth by showing recognition, reinforcing a job well done, and providing a general sense of support. Communication is the tool that is available to every manager. Not every manager can give an employee a raise or use a promotion as an incentive; however, every manager can use effective motivational communication. This chapter shows specifically how communication is the central ingredient in the motivational process and presents techniques that every manager can use to improve performance in the workplace.
The basic elements in employee motivation
Although motivational theories can become rather complex
Because motivational theory is so difficult to implement, more and more companies are seeing that the link between motivation and performance improvement is communication. Such companies as Oneida Silversmiths,
National Can Corporation, New York Life Insurance, and. Kohler have initiated programs that stress communication as the critical element in employee motivation.
Why do these companies stress communication when considering employee motivation? Effective communication is what managers use to improve an employee's sense of self-worth by showing recognition, reinforcing a job well done, and providing a general sense of support. Communication is the tool that is available to every manager. Not every manager can give an employee a raise or use a promotion as an incentive; however, every manager can use effective motivational communication. This chapter shows specifically how communication is the central ingredient in the motivational process and presents techniques that every manager can use to improve performance in the workplace.
The basic elements in employee motivation
Although motivational theories can become rather complex
COMMUNICATION, MOTIVATION AND PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT
COMMUNICATION, MOTIVATION AND PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT
The abundance of motivational theories from which managers can choose testifies to the fact that employee motivation remains one of the most fascinating but perplexing areas of managerial concern. Few employees work to their full ability; in fact, studies show that in some cases workers can perform at only 20 to 30 per cent of their ability without being fired and that average
employees work at only two-thirds of their capacities. A machine that produced so poorly would be repaired or replaced. What can managers of human resources do to overcome this waste and inefficiency?
Frankly, the values of all the different motivational
theories can be seriously questioned. To quote Odiorne, "Has all of the talk and work on teaching motivational theory been overdone? I'd like to suggest that it has."
Leidecker and Hall review the major motivational theories and state that when these theories are applied in the "real world," the results are often negative or, at best, neutral.
Miller made a comprehensive effort to determine if different motivational theories had an impact in the
organization. Miller analyzed three different organizations
The abundance of motivational theories from which managers can choose testifies to the fact that employee motivation remains one of the most fascinating but perplexing areas of managerial concern. Few employees work to their full ability; in fact, studies show that in some cases workers can perform at only 20 to 30 per cent of their ability without being fired and that average
employees work at only two-thirds of their capacities. A machine that produced so poorly would be repaired or replaced. What can managers of human resources do to overcome this waste and inefficiency?
Frankly, the values of all the different motivational
theories can be seriously questioned. To quote Odiorne, "Has all of the talk and work on teaching motivational theory been overdone? I'd like to suggest that it has."
Leidecker and Hall review the major motivational theories and state that when these theories are applied in the "real world," the results are often negative or, at best, neutral.
Miller made a comprehensive effort to determine if different motivational theories had an impact in the
organization. Miller analyzed three different organizations
Monday, January 21, 2008
Organization performance Bavelas and Barrett believe:
to start operations with a 'classes' factory. It is, however, noticeable that the older plants have more eTaborate 'perks systems' than younger .factories. This suggests. that the pressures to add to existing status systems become progressively harder to resist. The pseudo-scientific observations of Parkinson's law of the rising pyramid and the Peter principle that in a hierarchy every employee tends to rise to his level of incompetence
Organization performance Bavelas and Barrett believe:
It is entirely possible to view an organization on an elaborate system for gathering, evaluating, recombining and disseminating information. It is not surprising, in these terms that the effectiveness of an organization with respect to the achievement of its goals should be so closely rested to its effectiveness in handling information.
Drucker, on the other hand, sees related innovation
as one of the prime objectives of any organization, and it can be argued that in electronics-a rapidly developing industry with a high rate of Qbsolescence-innovation may be the prime objective.
These two views did not conflict with the findings of this study. Of th.e seven finns involved in this study, four have received the Queen's Award to industry for innovation. It may be significant that the same four fums had the highest average communication accuracy scores of
the study.
Organization performance Bavelas and Barrett believe:
It is entirely possible to view an organization on an elaborate system for gathering, evaluating, recombining and disseminating information. It is not surprising, in these terms that the effectiveness of an organization with respect to the achievement of its goals should be so closely rested to its effectiveness in handling information.
Drucker, on the other hand, sees related innovation
as one of the prime objectives of any organization, and it can be argued that in electronics-a rapidly developing industry with a high rate of Qbsolescence-innovation may be the prime objective.
These two views did not conflict with the findings of this study. Of th.e seven finns involved in this study, four have received the Queen's Award to industry for innovation. It may be significant that the same four fums had the highest average communication accuracy scores of
the study.
Need for a Substitute for promotion and other Factors
floor, workers in this age of higher education have severely limited promotional opportunities. A Fortune magazine study of 900 top executives found that less than 8 per cent had risen from the shop floor. When the study, asked only at managers under 50 years of age this parentage dropped to 5 per cent. If the workers have similar desires for advancement as do the managers, then, like the managers, these, desires may be increased by elaborate symbols devised primarily for managerial and not worker motivation. Their need for a substitute may be increased by these systems-as they are for the managers-and one form their substitute might take could be stronger demands' for wage increases and industrial recognition, e.g. in the form of trade unions. Professor Norman Hunt of the Edinburgh Business School quotes a survey of several hundred American companies which tried to assess the value of profit sharing as a means of promoting industrial peace. Of those companies practising profit sharing at all levels 9.9 per cent had experienced recent strikes, while 23.4 per cent of those companies not practising profit sharing at any level had had strikes. However, of the companies having profit sharing for managers only-an extra status differential-30.6 per cent had had recent strikes.
Need for a Substitute for promotion and other Factors
Numbers of Correlation Pr.obability
measurements coefficient
Status symbols
Difference in
Education
58
53
+0.19
+0.20
0.08
0.07
It would seem easier for firms setting up new plants
Need for a Substitute for promotion and other Factors
Numbers of Correlation Pr.obability
measurements coefficient
Status symbols
Difference in
Education
58
53
+0.19
+0.20
0.08
0.07
It would seem easier for firms setting up new plants
Need for a substitute for promoti01l a1ld the freque1lcy of commu1licatiol/ with superiors
instrumental theory which suggests that communicating
frequericy will be higher towards managers with
considerable power-this in fact was not the case. An alternative explanation is possible from other studies
although the use of the word 'psychological' may be
misleading. The managers dissatisfied with their rate of
achieving promotion may consciously 'over-communicate' with their superiors to draw attention to themselves and to ensure that they are not forgotten, especially when
promotions are imminent.
COMMUNICATING FREQUENCY
SUBSTIWTE NEED
WITH THE IMMEDATE LOW SUPERIOR
MEDIUM
HIGH
WITH THE IMMEDATE SUPERIOR AND HIS SUPERIOR
LOW
MEDIUM
HIGH
Need for a substitute for promoti01l a1ld the freque1lcy of commu1licatiol/ with superiors
It is worth noting that although the 'perks system' did increase this need for a substitute for promotion, few of the other status differences had any effect. It may be again that the important factor is one of visibility of the status difference, and that the perception of visibility may vary according to the type of organization involved. Although this electronics study did not extend to the shop
frequericy will be higher towards managers with
considerable power-this in fact was not the case. An alternative explanation is possible from other studies
although the use of the word 'psychological' may be
misleading. The managers dissatisfied with their rate of
achieving promotion may consciously 'over-communicate' with their superiors to draw attention to themselves and to ensure that they are not forgotten, especially when
promotions are imminent.
COMMUNICATING FREQUENCY
SUBSTIWTE NEED
WITH THE IMMEDATE LOW SUPERIOR
MEDIUM
HIGH
WITH THE IMMEDATE SUPERIOR AND HIS SUPERIOR
LOW
MEDIUM
HIGH
Need for a substitute for promoti01l a1ld the freque1lcy of commu1licatiol/ with superiors
It is worth noting that although the 'perks system' did increase this need for a substitute for promotion, few of the other status differences had any effect. It may be again that the important factor is one of visibility of the status difference, and that the perception of visibility may vary according to the type of organization involved. Although this electronics study did not extend to the shop
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